PRINCETON,  N.  J.  \# 


Library  of  Br.  A.  A.  Hodge.      Presented. 


BL  181  .C5  1869 
Chadbourne,  Paul  A.  1823- 

1883. 
Lectures  on  natural  theology 


LECTURES    ON 


Natural     Th 


ATURAL        1HEOLOGY. 


LECTURES 


Natural    Theology; 


Nature  and  the  Bible  from  the  same  Author. 


DELIVERED    BEFORE    THE 


LOWELL    INSTITUTE,    BOSTON. 


P.  A.  CHADBOURNE,  A.M.,  M.D., 

Professor  of  Natural  History  in  Williams  College  ;  A  uthor  of  Lectures  on 
the  "  Relations  of  Natural  History"  etc. 


NEW    YORK : 

G.  P.  PUTNAM  &  SON,  66 1   BROADWAY. 

1869. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1867,  by 

G.  P.  PUTNAM  &  SON, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  for  the  Southern 
District  of  New  York. 


The  New  York  Printing  Company, 

81,  83,  and  85  Centre  Street, 

New  York. 


To 
REV.   MARK   HOPKINS,  DD,   LL.D., 

PRESIDENT   OF   WILLIAMS   COLLEGE. 

Sir— It  is  not  as  a  mere  formality,  nor  from  a  desire  to  connect  my  name  with 
one  so  distinguished  in  the  higher  departments  of  Philosophy,  that  I  inscribe  these 
Lectures  to  you.  It  is  especially  fitting  that  I  should  now  acknowledge  my  indebt- 
edness to  you  for  that  kindness  which  is  the  most  pleasant  remembrance  of  my 
student  life,  and  which  has  remained  unchanged  through  all  the  relations  of  fifteen 
years  of  official  labor.  It  was  at  your  suggestion,  that  I  first  commenced  a  distinct 
work  on  Natural  Theology.  It  has  taken  its  present  form  in  the  moments  snatched 
from  the  varied  duties  that  have  daily  demanded  my  time  and  strength.  And 
whatever  may  now  be  its  value  depends  much  upon  the  counsel  and  encourage- 
ment which  you  have  given  me  during  the  whole  course  of  its  preparation. 

With  great  respect  and  esteem, 

I  am  most  truly  yours, 

P.  A.  CHADBOURNE. 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


The  Lectures  are  published  in  the  form  and  order 
in  which  they  were  originally  delivered.  Nothing 
would  be  gained  for  the  general  reader  by  dividing 
them  into  chapters.  For  the  convenience  of 
students  and  teachers  a  very  full  Table  of  Contents 
has  been  prepared,  which  will  materially  aid  the 
teacher  in  recitation,  and  render  frequent  reviews 
easy  for  the  student.  It  is  hoped  that  while  the 
Lectures  present  the  great  outlines  of  Natural 
Theology  in  a  form  easily  understood  by  all,  they 
will  also  awaken  in  the  student  a  love  for  the  study 
of  Nature,  and  lead  him  on  to  independent  obser- 
vation in  this  most  profitable  field  of  human 
thought. 


CONTENTS 


LECTURE  I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 


Man's  Origin  and  Destiny.— Questions  presented  for  study.— Effect  of  su 
stition  —Religious  nature.— The  great  questions  in  reference  to  man.— J 


PAGK 

super- 
great  questions  in  reference  to  man.— Man 
naturally  seeks  to  know  if  there  is  a  God.— Sufficiency  of  the  proof  of  His 
existence.— Theory  of  our  case.— Answers  that  have  been  given  from  nature. 
The  Bible.— It  must  stand  the  tests  of  science.— Natural  Religion  defined.— 
Design  of  the  Lowell  Lectures.— Our  situation  in  this  world  like  that  of 
children  in  a  palace.— Knowledge  of  Religion  which  men  can  obtain  from 
nature  alone.— Difficulty  of  deciding  the  question.— All  that  Natural  Religion 
has  done.— Man  without  the  Bible  unprovided  for.— Civilization  without  it 
self-destructive.— Religion  implies  relationship  to  a  Higher  Being.— Topics 
presented.— Amount  of  science  required  for  the  study— Conditions  necessary 
for  fair  discussion x- 


LECTURE  II. 

PRINCIPLES    OF    BELIEF. — ADAPTATION    OF    OUR    BODIES    TO 
OUR   WANTS   AND   TO   THE   WORLD. 

Perfect  provision  for  organic  beings.— No  provision  in  material  world  for  man's 
highest  nature.— Claims  of  the  Bible.— A  natural  provision  for  man.— Prin- 
ciples of  belief. — Theories  of  creation.— First  cause.— Matter  might  be  eternal. 
—  Beginning  of  life.— Antagonism  of  physical  forces  and  vitality.— Apparent 
harmony  between  them.— Man  an  effect.— His  creation  to  be  accounted  for. 
The  germ  as  wonderful  as  the  developed  being.— Bible  account  of  creation. 
—What  we  should  expect  to  find  in  such  a  creation.— Nature  an  unchange- 
able record.— Questions  that  would  arise  without  the  Bible.— Aid  of  Geology. 
—The  existence  of  beings,  and  not  their  mode  of  origin,  proof  of  skill  and 
power.— Adaptation  of  our  bodies  to  our  use  and  to  the  world. — Relations  to 
the  world  established  through  the  senses  —Distinctive  use  of  each  sense.— 
Conditions  necessary  for  sight.— Relation  of  light  to  the  atmosphere.— Form 
of  objects  and  effects  of  surface.— Structure  of  the  eye.— Sense  of  hearing 
gives  knowledge  of  objects  beyond  the  range  of  vision.— Mechanism  of  the 
ear. — Taste  and  smell. — No  special  mechanism. — Design  shown  by  the  use. 
— Touch. — Kinds  of  knowledge  given  by  it. — All  the  senses  connected  with 
the  nervous  system.— Vegetative  life. — Relation  of  the  body  to  the  world 
considered.— The  atmosphere.— Structure  of  the  lung.— Nutrition.  — Sleep. 
— Animals  fitted  for  particular  zoues.— Man  for  all.— No  special  sciences 
needed  to  show  our  adaptation  to  the  world. — Personality  of  the  Creator 
inferred  from  the  provision  for  our  personality. — Antagonism  in  nature 46 


viii  Contents. 


LECTURE  III. 

ADAPTATION   OF   ANIMALS    TO   THE   WORLD    BY    STRUCTURE. 
FUNCTION,    AND    INSTINCT. 

PAGE 

Adaptation  of  Animals  to  the  World. — Special  adaptations. — Chance  excluded. 
— Man  as  a  physical  being  differs  only  in  degree. —  His  sources  of  enjoyment 
complex.  —  In  animals  nothing  but  adaptations  to  this  world. — Whole  classes 
to  be  treated  of. — Waier  Animals. — Microscopic. — Coral  Animals. — Jelly- 
fishes  — Starfishes. — Mollusks. — Perfect  provision  for  each  form. — The  Pinna. 
—  Saxicavas. — Nautilus. — Worms.  — Crustaceans.  —  Insects. — Fishes. — Rep- 
tiles. —  Birds.  —  Fitted  for  change  of  season. — Hibernation. — Relation  to 
length  of  year. — Instinct.  — Supplements  structure  and  function. — Gives 
higher  type  of  life — Defined — Intelligence  in  Animals. — Vegetative  life  in 
Animals. — Relation  of  instinct  to  specific  structure. — The  Natica. — Instinct 
often  blind  in  its  action. — The  Cicada. —Tent  moth.  — Migration  of  fishes.— 
Conscious  parental  relation  in  birds. — Uniformity  of  action  resulting  from 
instinct. — Wide  range  of  instinct  in  Mammals. — The  Muskrat. — Instinct  of 
the  young  supplemented  by  that  of  the  parent. — The  body  and  mind  fitted 
for  each  other 78 


LECTURE  IV. 

SPECIAL   CONTRIVANCES— PRESERVATION   OF    SPECIES. 

Special  adaptations. — Functions. — Cases  mentioned  by  Paley. — Ball  and  socket 
joint. — Cuttle-fish. — Terebratulas. — Leech. — Gnats. — Bees. — Spiders. — Vari- 
ation of  substance  according  to  their  instinct. — Silk-worm. — Lobsters  and 
Crabs. —  Rattlesnake. — Birds.— Fitted  for  fight. — Oil  gland. — Structure  of 
birds  of  prey.— Water  birds.— Form  of  bills.— Grebe  and  Loon. — Waders. — 
Woodpeckers. — Development  from  use  considered. — Homologous  structure. 
— Limbs  of  animals. — Teeth. — Whales  and  Rays. — Crop  of  birds. — Preserva- 
tion of  species. — Definition  of. — Multiplicity  of  germs. — Distribution  of 
seeds — Springs,  balloons,  hooks,  barbs. — Same  end  secured  by  diverse 
means — Vitality  of  seeds. — Fertilization  of  flowers. — Growth  of  plants  sup- 
plementing instinct.— Carnivorous  animals  limited  in  number. — Destruction 
of  animals  provided  for. — Suffering  and  death. — Goodness  of  Deity  to  be 
vindicated. — Man's  enjoyment  and  suffering  on  different  grounds. — Present 
discussion  confined  to  lower  animals. — Suffering  never  inflicted  for  its  own 
sake. — Enjoyment  in  excess  of  suffering. — Death  secures  parental  relation. — 
Sum  of  enjoyment  increased  by  succession  of  animals  — Introduction  of  car- 
nivorous animals  increases  the  sum  of  enjoyment. — Disease. — Provision  for 
its  alleviation.— Design  may  show  cruelty. — Apparent  cruelty  often  real  bene- 
volence.—Creator  Infinite  in  His  attributes 103 


LECTURE  V. 

ADAPTATION    OF   PLANTS   TO   THE   WORLD. 

Design  in  plants  seen  only  in  organization.— Natural  selection.— Provision 
made  by  plants  compared  with  instinct.— Wisdom  manifested  by  instinct 
referred  to  the  Creator. — Relation  of  plants  to  earth  and  air. — Polarity. — 
Structure  of  leaves. — Fall  of  leaf. — Structure  of  wide-leaved  trees. — Of  ever- 


Contents.  lx 


PAGK 

greens. — Position  of  buds. — Mathematical  order. — Symmetry  and  welfare  of 
tree  secured.— Variety  of  habit  — Fitted  for  soil  — Climate  and  place  in  the 
solar  system. — Power  of  the  bud. — Young  fruits. — Structure  of  buds. — Food 
stored  up. — The  potato. — Beet  and  Parsnip. — Century  plant. — Orchis. — 
Solomon's-teal. — Structure  of  seed. — Perfection  and  variety  of  machinery. 
— Relation  of  plants  and  animals. — Effect  of  each  on  the  air. — Vegetable 
kingdom  subservient  to  the  animal. — Its  support. — Oak  galls. — Plants  respond 
to  the  insect's  instinct. — Fertilization  of  plants  by  insects.— Squashes. — For- 
get-me-nots.— Orchids. — Results 126 


LECTURE  VI. 

PRODUCTION   OF   VARIETIES   AND   THEIR   FINAL   CAUSE. 

Origin  of  species. — May  be  varied  for  a  wise  purpose. — Living  and  fossil  forms, 
parts  of  one  whole. — Four  plans  of  structure. — The  rocks  the  true  record. — 
May  be  mistranslated,  but  not  changed. — Unity  of  plan  in  the  Divine  mind. 
— Changes  that  favor  development  theory. — Quotation  from  Darwin. — 
Variation  considered  historically. — For  a  definite  purpose— Adapts  species 
to  wide  geographical  range. — To  man. — Definition  of  varieties. — Cause  not 
known. — Quotation  from  Gray.  —  Final  cause. — Reference  to  man. — Beauty 
of  crystal. — Difference  in  kingdom  of  life. — Organs  of  plants. — Anthers. — 
Petals. — Double  flowers. — Propagation  of  double  plants. — Fleshy  fruits. — 
Idea  of  beauty  in  some  plants. — Of  fruit  in  others. — Two  series  according  to 
lines  of  development. — Corn. — Sugar-cane. — Potato. — Tomato.— Indications 
in  wild  plants. — Exceptions. — Some  plants  for  a  double  purpose. — Vegetable 
kingdom  for  the  animal. — Appears  primarily  for  itself. — Multitude  of  germs, 
— Grains  of  wheat  represent  food  and  plant  life. — Use  of  soft  fruits  — Plants 
and  animals  constructed  for  man  as  an  intellectual  being. — Increase  of  beauty 
not  for  the  plant.  — Varieties  offer  condition  of  continual  progress. — Develop- 
ment theory  not  Atheistic. — Incurable  scepticism. — Geology  must  explain 
origin  of  species. — Law  of  variation,  evidence  of  design  and  wisdom 148 


LECTURE  VII. 

CHEMICAL   ELEMENTS    AND    THEIR   MUTUAL   RELATION. 

Argument  for  design  may  rest  on  collocation  alone. — Character  of  Creator 
learned  from  the  very  proofs  of  His  existence. — Number  of  elements  known. 
— Results  secured  by  their  nature  and  relative  quantity.  — Fixed  laws  of 
combination. — Neither  matter  nor  force  lost. — Pillars  of  organic  life. — Evi- 
dence of  design  in  the  constitution  of  matter. — Equilibrium,  how  restored  in 
the  four  elements  —Balanced  affinity. — Nature  of  their  compounds. — Oxygen 
specially  considered. — Its  compounds. — The  air. — Original  condition  of 
matter. — Oxygen  in  the  air  a  residual  substance. — Essential  to  animals. — 
Helps  form  the  tissues  and  secures  activity. — Produces  artificial  light  and 
heat. — Common  and  active  state. — Ozone. — Affinity  of  oxygen  varied  by 
temperature.— Hydrogen. — Basis  of  flame — Its  inflammable  compounds  — 
Combination  of  properties  fitting  it  for  a  light-producer.— Combines  with 
carbon  to  produce  light. — Summation  of  properties. —  Its  fitness  for  organic 
structures. — Constant  change  in  animal  bodies. — Relation  of  hydrogen  to 
nitrogen. — Nitrogen  adds  to  weight  of  atmosphere.  — Moderates  the  action  of 
hydrogen. — Negative  properties. — Nature  of  its  compounds. — Carbon. — Dif- 
ferent forms. — Supplements  hydrogen  in  combustion. — As  an  element,  always 
solid. — Coal. — Indestructible  at  common  temperature. — Carbonic  acid i 


Contents. 


LECTURE  VIII. 

PROVISION  FOR   THE  INTELLECT  OF  MAN  IN  THE  STRUCTURE 
OF  MINERALS  AND  LAWS  OF  CHEMICAL  COMBINATION. 

PAGE 

Preservation  of  man  requires  preservation  of  other  beings.— The  whole  plan  to 
be  grasped.— Field  of  mind.— Animals  remain  the  same.— Man's  physical 
nature  conditional  for  his  higher. — Provision  for  our  personality  to  be 
expected. —  Personality  of  the  Creator. — Mind  seeks  for  the  laws  of  nature. 
—  Physical  good  never  sought  for  by  the  great  leaders  in  science. — Search  for 
thought  among  ancient  inscriptions. — Physical  and  intellectual  appetite  com- 
pared.—Mind  of  man  and  the  order  of  nature  from  the  same  Creator.— 
Nature  the  great  teacher. — Her  models  perfect — Proofs  of  the  provision  for 
mind.— Minerals.— Mind  must  be  taxed.— Language  of  Minerals.— Our  work 
is  to  translate  it. — Perfectly  adapted  to  the  human  mind.— Crystalline  forms. 
— Progress  of  mind  in  unfolding  them.— Fundamental  forms. — Effect  of  crys- 
talline force  in  the  crust  of  the  earth.— Beauty  of  crystals  for  man.— Taylor's 
description  of  the  Russian  jewels.— Bible  language.— Chemical  relation  of  the 
elements. — Power  of  the  chemist. — Condition  of  progress. — Beyond  the  reach 
of  development  theories. — Man  has  increased  in  knowledge,  but  not  in  mental 
power. — Answers  which  nature  gives 210 


LECTURE  IX. 

PROVISION    FOR    MAN'S    INTELLECT    IN    THE    RELATIONS    OF 
ORGANIC   BEINGS    AND    IN    THE    CRUST    OF    THE    EARTH. 

Kingdom  of  life. — Mathematical  law  continued  — Orders  of  plants.— Animals. — 
Fossils. — All  form  one  picture. — Science  discovered. — Manifestation  of 
thought  in  nature. — Astronomy. — Enthusiasm  of  Naturalist. — Geology. — 
Present  changes. — Its  key. — Provisions  for  man's  physical  wants  presuppose 
his  intellectual  nature — Crust  of  the  Earth  shows  design.— Man  multiplies 
his  powers.  — Properties  of  metals. — Gold  and  Silver. — Platinum,  Mercury. 
Iron. —  Loadstone-Metals  essential  toman's  progress. — Fuel  for  man  alone  — 
Power  which  Chemistry  gives  him. — Plants  and  Animals  made  to  minister 
to  his  physical  wants  through  his  intellectual  power 231 


LECTURE  X. 

PROVISION   FOR   THE  EMOTIONAL  NATURE   AND   THE  VARIED 
INTELLECTUAL  TASTES  AND  POWERS  OF  MEN. 

Love  of  the  beautiful.— Provision  for  it  in  nature. — Taste.— Fine  Arts  founded 
upon  nature. — Poetry  — Bible  language. — Paintirg  and  sculpture.  —  Music. — 
Conditions  necessary  for  it.  — Beauty  of  outline  and  color.  — Clouds  — Crystals. 
— Plants. — Increase  of  beauty  in  leaf  and  flower. — Double  flowers  — Micros- 
copic animals.— Corals. — Jelly-fishes. — Shells. — Their  beauty  not  for  them- 
selves.— Insects. — Distribution  of  their  color  — Vertebrates  — Beauty  of  fossils. 
— Grandeur  and  sublimity. —Emotional  nature  perfect  in  man  ages  ago.— 
Different  intellectual  taste's  provided  for.— Advance  in  science  and  art  thus 
secured.— Sciences  yet  to  be  unfolded 25* 


Contents.  xi 


LECTURE  XI. 

THE  MORAL  NATURE  OF  MAN  AND  THE  BIBLE  AS  A  NATURAL 
PROVISION  FOR  HIM. 

■r.  .  .  .  .  PAGE 
Decisions  of  the  moral  nature. — Chief  characteristic  of  man. — Conscience. — 
Implies  accountability. — The  existence  of  a  moral  governor. — Approval  of 
conscience.— Public  opinion. — Others  suffer  from  our  acts. — Malevolent  feel- 
ings produce  unhappiness. — Appetites. — Physical  suffering  from  sin. — Labor 
tends  to  virtue. — The  world  as  it  is  best  for  us.— This  world  not  enough  for 
man's  powers. — His  immortality  inferred. — Questions  which  we  need  to  have 
answered. — The  Bible  a  natural  provision. — Adapted  to  meet  the  wants  of 
man's  moral  nature.— Answers  questions  which  nature  cannot  answer. — 
Forgiveness  of  sin. — Immortality  brought  to  light. — With  the  Bible,  man 
completely  provided  for 277 


LECTURE  XII. 

THE  MOSAIC  AND  GEOLOGIC  RECORDS. 

Natural  religion  not  sufficient. — Supposed  origin  of  the  Bible.— Correspondence  , 
to  the  works  of  nature. — Seeming  disagreement. — First  chapter  of  Genesis. — 
Testimony  of  Humboldt.— Purpose  of  the  Bible  demands  some  account  of 
the  creation. — The  position  taken  in  the  argument. — Chemistry  our  guide 
before  the  sedimentary  rocks. — Progress  in  creation. — First  condition  of 
matter.  —  Gravitation.  —  Effect  of  bringing  particles  together.  —  Light.  — 
Nott  and  Gliddon. — Geologic  day. — Hugh  Miller's  view. — Firmament  — 
Office  of  the  atmosphere.  Dry  land.  Introduction  of  life.  Plants  created 
first. — Sun  and  Moon. — Water  animals  and  birds. — Land  animals. — Man. — 
Picture  of  creation  as  presented  to  an  intelligent  being.— Seventh  day. — 
Conclusion 296 


PREFACE. 


The  following  lectures  are  the  natural  outgrowth 
of  professional  study  and  instruction  in  College. 
Portions  of  them  have  already  appeared  in  Reviews 
and  in  my  published  addresses.  In  fact,  several  of 
them  are  but  the  unfolding  of  the  fourth  lecture  on 
"The  Relations  of  Natural  History,"  deli- 
vered at  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  1859. 

When  I  received  the  invitation  to  lecture  before 
the  Lowell  Institute,  the  press  of  other  duties  left 
no  time  to  do  more  than  to  arrange  the  materials 
already  on  hand.  In  the  text,  I  have  endeavored  to 
indicate  the  authors  from  whom  special  aid  was 
derived.  All  who  have  studied  any  subject  for 
years,  without  thought  of  publication,  know  how 
difficult  a  task  it  is  to  tell  all  the  sources  of  their 
knowledge.  Much  of  Natural  Theology,  instead  of 
commencing  with    Paley,  or   with  Nieuwentyt,  to 


xiv  Preface. 

whom  Paley  was  probably  much  indebted,  has  so 
long  been  the  common  -inheritance  of  thinking 
men  that,  like  some  of  the  fruits  and  grains,  it  is 
impossible  to  trace  it  back  to  its  original  source. 
Much  of  it,  indeed,  is  so  apparent  to  every  student 
of  Nature,  that  it  is  like  the  sunlight,  seen  by  all 
without  aid  from  others. 

To  the  leading  idea  in  these  lectures,  exceptions 
will  be  taken  by  some  at  the  outset ;  especially  by 
those  who,  following  the  lead  of  Compte,  regard  all 
inquiries  respecting  efficient  and  final  causes  as 
unphilosophical  and  useless. 

The  world  is  here  represented  as  having  been 
made  for  man.  To  him  as  an  intelligent  and  moral 
being,  all  nature  is  subservient.  Where  he  has  to 
yield,  it  is  not  evidence,  that  man  is  disregarded  in 
the  mechanism  of  the  universe,  nor  is  he  overcome 
as  inferior  to  inanimate  nature  ;  but  it  is  simply  the 
individual  suffering  under  the  operation  of  some 
law  made  inflexible  for  the  benefit  of  the  race. 

And  when  all  had  been  done  for  man  that  it 
seems  possible  to  do  through  an  irrational  creation, 
and  his  highest  wants  were  still  unprovided  for,  the 
Bible  was  given  to  complete  the  provision. 

In  the  highest  sense,  the  final  cause  of  all  things 
is  the  glory  of  God.  So  far  as  the  general  structure 
of  this  world  is  concerned,  the  final  cause  of  every- 


Preface.  xv 

thing  is  ultimately  found  in  the  intellectual  and 
moral  nature  of  man.  And  it  is  in  the  provision 
for  man,  that  the  high  character  of  a  Personal 
Creator  is  especially  manifested.  But  among  the 
myriads  of  organic  beings  below  man,  there  is  such 
a  constant  series  of  adaptations  and  dependencies, 
that  in  presenting  the  argument  for  design,  the  doc- 
trine of  final  causes  is  ever  before  us. 

It  may  be  objected  to  some  of  the  lectures,  that 
theories  are  introduced  in  respect  to  which  we 
know  nothing  with  certainty  now,  and  perhaps 
never  can  know  anything.  The  question  of  the 
validity  of  such  theories  will  not  affect  the  general 
argument.  They  are  presented  as  theories  only. 
It  is  impossible  that  the  human  mind  should  always 
stop  with  ascertained  facts.  When  it  has  reached 
the  limit  of  the  known  it  will  push  on,  as  best  it 
may,  into  the  region  of  the  unknown.  No  harm 
can  be  done,  if  the  writer  fairly  states  where  he  is, 
and  relies  upon  facts  alone  for  proof. 

In  treating  of  Chemistry  and  other  Sciences,  the 
common  language  and  most  familiar  formulas  and 
theories  have  been  adopted.  As  the  facts  will 
always  remain  the  same,  no  advantage  would  be 
gained  by  introducing  into  a  work  on  Natural  The- 
ology discussions  on  the  nature  of  force,  and  on 
the  constitution  of  matter,  or  the  language  and  for- 


xvi  Preface. 

mulas  that  have  come  into  partial  use  in  conse- 
quence of  new  theories. 

The  Theory  of  Development  has  not  been  at- 
tacked directly.  In  fact,  those  who  hold  to  that 
theory  present  so  many  phases  of  belief,  that  it  is 
difficult  for  one  to  refer  to  it  at  all,  without  being 
liable  to  the  charge  of  unfairness.  The  learning 
and  the  labors  of  the  men  who  hold  to  it,  in  some 
form,  entitle  it  to  respectful  consideration.  Its 
leading  principles,  grounds  of  proof,  and  theological 
tendencies,  are  evidently  misunderstood  by  many 
who  oppose  it.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  the 
arguments  from  the  final  cause  of  varieties  and 
from  the  chemical  relation  of  the  elements  to  each 
other  and  to  the  wants  of  man  are  strongly  opposed 
to  that  theory  as  it  is  generally  held. 

Natural  Theology,  like  the  study  of  Nature  in 
general,  can  never  be  exhausted.  We  have  in  these 
lectures  been  like  a  traveller  passing  through  a  con- 
tinent from  side  to  side,  describing  only  the  narrow 
territory  that  comes  within  his  own  range  of  vision. 
Other  explorers  will  have  new  wonders  to  tell,  and 
whole  regions  are  ready  to  unfold  yet  other  proof 
of  the  being  and  character  of  the  Creator  to  those 
who,  in  the  future,  shall  search  for  them. 

Williams  College,  January,  1867. 


NATURAL    THEOLOGY. 


LECTURE  I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 


Maris  Origin  and  Destiny. — Questions  presented  for  study. — 
Effect  of  superstition. — Religious  nature. —  The  great  ques- 
tions in  reference  to  man. — Man  naturally  seeks  to  know 
if  there  is  a  God. — Sufficiency  of  the  proof  of  His  exist- 
ence.—  Theory  of  our  case. — A  nswers  that  have  been  given 

from  nature. — The  Bible. — It  ?nust  stand  the  tests  of  sci- 
ence.— Natural  Religion  defined. — Design  of  the  Lowell 
Lectures. — Our  situation  in  this  world  like  that  of  children 
in  a  palace. — Knowledge  of  Religion  which  ?nen  can  obtain 

from  nature  alone. — Difficulty  of  deciding  the  question. — 
All  that  Natural  Religion  has  done. — Man  without  the  Bi- 
ble unprovided  for. — Civilization  without  it  self  destructive. 
— Religion  implies  relationship  to  a  Higher  Being. —  Topics 
presented. — Amount  'of  science  required  for  the  study. — 
Conditions  necessary  for  fair  discussion. 

What  is  man's  origin,  and  what  is  his  destiny  ? 
These  two  questions  will  at  some  time  engross  the 
attention  of  every  thinking  man,  in  spite  of  all  sys- 
tems of  Positive  Philosophy.  In  seeking  for  the 
answers,  every  field  of  knowledge  will  be  explored. 
All  history  and  all  science  will  be  called  upon  to 
throw  their  light  upon  the  past  condition  of  the 
race,  and  upon  its  future  destiny.     It  is  not  possible . 


1 8  Natural  TJieology. 

that  man  should  measure  the  heavens  and  compre- 
hend the  dust  of  the  earth,  read  its  past  history  in 
the  rocks  and  predict  the  coming  changes  in  this 
physical  universe,  and  yet  so  far  ignore  himself  as 
to  forget  to  ask  how  he  came  upon  this  earth,  and 
for  what  purpose  he  is  here.     We  see  a  vast  chain 
of  being  stretching  below  us,  but  no  race  above  us. 
Are  we  then  the  highest   order   of  beings   in   the 
universe,  or  are  there  other  orders  to  whom  we  sus- 
tain relations,  and  by  whom  we  may  be  affected  for 
good  or  for  evil  ?     We  know  that  our  course   on 
earth  will  soon  be  run.     Is  this  our  only  theatre  of 
action  ;  or  is  there  another  yet  to  come,  independent 
of  this,  or  having  some  relation  to  it  ?     This  is  the 
great    question    that    must   force    itself   upon    the 
thoughts   of  every  civilized   man.     An  attempt  to 
give  an  answer  involves   the   consideration    of  all 
those  subjects,  which  give  us  the  great  outlines  of 
Natural  Theology  and  of  Natural  Religion.    Among 
these  subjects   thus  presented  for   our   study,   we 
find  the  being  and   character  of  God — the  origin 
and  final  destiny  of  man — his  relations  to  God  and 
the  duties   growing  out    of    those    relations.      All 
observation  shows   that  before  man  becomes  civil- 
ized, he  is  under  the  power  of  a  superstition  that 
takes  the  place  of  rational  belief  in  reference  to  all 
these   subjects.     This    superstition   may  retain  its 
hold  long  upon  the  mind  even  in  the  midst  of  civil- 
ization, and  may  be  joined  with  some  of  its  highest 
manifestations  in  literature  and  art.     The  first  burst- 
ing away  from  that  superstition  is  often  to  infidelity 


Religiotis  Nature  in  Man.  ig 

and  sometimes  even  to  atheism.  But  neither  athe- 
ism nor  infidelity  is  the  natural  state  of  man.  He 
has  a  religious  nature.  We  may  say  that  there  is 
no  foundation  for  it,  nothing  that  corresponds  to  it 
out  of  himself.  But  no  student  of  the  human  mind 
would  deny  the  possession  of  this  nature  to  the  race, 
any  more  than  he  would  deny  man's  social  nature 
or  his  appreciation  and  love  of  the  beautiful.  This 
religious  nature  has  ever  proved  too  powerful  to  al- 
low infidelity  and  atheism  more  than  a  passing  tri- 
umph. They  have  sometimes,  indeed,  fallen  like  a 
disease  upon  whole  masses  of  men  ;  but  generally 
they  have  appeared  only  here  and  there,  as  blindness 
and  deafness  are  the  misfortunes  of  but  few.  This 
religious  nature,  which  no  condition  of  the  race  has 
ever  been  able  to  eradicate  or  weaken,  except  under 
abnormal  and  temporary  conditions,  marshals  the 
highest  powers  of  the  mind  to  seek  by  reason  that 
certainty  for  its  advanced  life  which  superstitious 
belief  gave  to  the  race  in  the  times  of  ignorance. 
It  becomes  a  great  moving  power,  that  can  no  more 
be  destroyed  nor  restrained  from  its  legitimate  ac- 
tion than  any  of  the  great  forces  of  nature.  Under 
its  promptings,  man  will  not  believe  that  progress 
in  knowledge  is  to  shut  the  soul  out  from  that  en- 
joyment which  ignorant  belief  gave  it.  The  con- 
viction of  the  great  thinkers  of  the  race  has  been 
that  even  the  absurd  superstitions  and  religious  be- 
liefs of  ignorance  are  not  entirely  groundless — that 
they  must  rest  on  a  basis  of  truth,  because  they 
meet  so  fully  the  desires  of  the  soul.     As  the  light 


20  Natural  Theology. 

of  civilization  advances,  those  desires  are  not  weak 
ened,  but  strengthened  ;  and  therefore  it  follows  that 
when  superstition  has  lost  its  dominion  over  the 
mind,  an  attempt  will  always  be  made  to  satisfy  by 
reason  that  want  which  the  soul  demands  to  have 
met.  And  thus  it  has  come  to  pass  that  the  history 
of  the  human  mind  includes  a  history  of  struggles 
with  these  questions.  Am  I  a  creature  of  chance  ? 
Am  I  like  the  brutes,  except  in  degree  ?  Am  I  the 
highest  intelligence  in  the  universe,  or  is  this  whole 
world  the  work  of  an  intelligent  personal  Being,  and 
does  its  Creator  rule  and  govern  it,  so  that  I  am  now 
accountable  to  Him,  and  ever  to  remain  so  ?  In 
other  words,  am  I  a  mortal  being  with  power  to  close 
my  existence  at  any  moment,  accountable  while  I 
live  only  to  my  fellow-men  ;  or  am  I  immortal,  and 
is  my  destiny  in  the  hands  of  a  Higher  Power  ?  It 
is  necessary  for  the  peace  and  true  dignity  of  man 
that  these  questions  should  be  settled.  What  peace 
can  there  be  for  him  while  he  is  in  doubt  whether 
death  brings  to  him  eternal  oblivion,  or  opens  the 
portal  of  another  life  related  to  the  present  ?  How 
can  man  rise  to  the  dignity  of  an  immortal  in  thought 
and  action,  while  uncertain  that  there  remains  to 
him  another  hour  of  conscious  existence  ?  We  do 
not  wonder  then  that  these  questions  have  engrossed 
the  great  minds  of  all  ages.  They  speak  in  a  lan- 
guage so  loud  that  they  must  be  heard  even  above 
the  roar  of  passion  and  the  thousand  tongues  of  this 
physical  universe.  All  questions  of  mere  physical 
science  sink  into  insignificance  compared  with  these. 


Sufficiency  of  Proof.  21 

Indeed  the  value  of  questions  in  physical  science 
depends  much  upon  how  these  higher  questions  are 
answered. 

We  assumed  in  the  outset  a  religious  nature  in 
man — manifesting  its  existence  by  his  religious 
impulses  and  desires.  Man  naturally  seeks  to  know 
if  there  is  a  God,  and  what  relations  he  sustains  to 
that  God.  -No  one  will  deny  this  who  is  at  all 
versed  in  the  history  of  human  belief.  Men  have 
in  their  untutored  state  received  a  belief  in  the 
existence  of  some  higher  power,  either  from  tra- 
dition or  as  the  outgrowth  of  their  nature.  In  the 
highest  forms  of  society,  investigations  have  led 
most  men  to  the  same  result.  These  investigations 
have  been  so  uniform  in  producing  a  belief  in  God, 
that  we  have  in  this  fact  a  strong  presumptive  evi- 
dence of  the  sufficiency  of  the  proof  of  His  exist- 
ence, and  of  the  power  of  the  human  mind  to  weigh 
that  proof.  As  the  childish  credulity  of  an  early 
age  gave  way  before  advancing  knowledge,  it  was 
only  the  few  who  failed  to  find  higher  and  surer 
ground  of  belief — to  grasp  proof  fitted  to  satisfy 
the  progressing  mind.  As  more  proof  became 
necessary  to  produce  conviction,  more  proof  always 
presented  itself;  so  that  the  great  majority  of  men 
who  have  left  in  words  or  in  acts  a  record  of  their 
thoughts  and  convictions,  have  believed  in  an  invisi- 
ble world,  in  a  divine  Personal  Being,  and  in  a  future 
state  of  existence.  So  uniformly  has  this  opinion 
prevailed  that  we  are  justified  in  assuming  that 
there  are  some  things  in  this  universe  that  tend  to 


22  Natural  Theology. 

show  that  it  is  the  creation  of  a  Personal  Being,  and 
that  it  has  somewhere  in  its  structure  marks  that 
may  fairly  be  presumed  to  indicate  the  character  of 
its  Creator ;  that  there  is  also  some  proof  that  man 
is  an  accountable  being,  and  that  there  are  some 
means  by  which  he  can  establish  such  relations  with 
his  Creator  as  that  accountability  requires.  This 
may  not  be  true  ;  but  it  has  been  held  by  so  many  of 
the  best  minds  the  world  has  seen,  that  we  may  be 
allowed  to  start  with  this  theory  of  our  case.  Our 
theory  then  is,  that  man  and  all  creatures  in  the 
universe  are  the  work  of  a  Personal  Being.  That 
Personal  Being  we  wish  to  search  for,  to  learn  His 
character  and  our  relations  to  Him.  For  such  a  result, 
no  journey  would  be  too  long,  no  fatigue  too  great. 
In  this  investigation,  we  naturally  look  to  see  what 
those  who  have  gone  before  us  have  to  offer  for  our 
aid  and  guidance.  We  ask  where  they  searched  for 
an  answer  to  these  questions  which  seem  to  have 
been  the  common  inheritance  of  the  race  ?  We 
ask  them  what  answer  they  received,  and  in  what 
language  the  oracle  gave  its  response  ?  And  lo  ! 
all  down  the  ages  come  the  answers  from  those 
philosophers,  who  claim  to  have  found  their  ora- 
cles speaking  from  the  heavens,  or  from  the 
foundations  and  adornings  of  this  earth.  Others 
have  found,  or  fancied  that  they  have  found, 
the  answer  in  the  wondrous  powers  and  relation- 
ships of  their  own  being.  Above  all  these  sources 
of  knowledge,  we  have  a  Book,  ( laiming  divine  ori- 
gin,  claiming  to  be  the  written  Word  of  the  Being 


Claims  of  the  Bible.  23 

we  are  searching  for,  revealing  His  character  and 
answering  every  question  we  need  to  propound  re- 
specting Him  and  our  relations  to  Him.      If  this 
Book  is  all  it  claims  to  be,  it  is  all  we  need  in  this 
investigation.     But  we  have  not  yet  learned  even 
that  there  is  such  a  Being  ;  or,  granting  His  existence, 
that  the  Book  is  His  work.     We  are  not  yet  prepared 
to  pronounce  the  Bible  obsolete,  a  collection  of  old 
wives    fables  mingled  here  and  there  with  flashes  of 
a  high  philosophy ;.  but  we  freely  acknowledge  that 
the  Bible  must  stand  the  tests  which  science  can 
fairly  put  it  to.     If,  by  fair  interpretation,  it  is  shown 
to  conflict  with  the  revelations  of  nature,  it  can  no 
longer  claim  authority  as  the  Word  of  God;     But  we 
find  this  Book  boldly  proclaiming  its  own  Author  to 
be  the  same  that  created  the  world  and  all  it  con- 
tains.    We  find  it  boldly  referring  to  the  world  as 
evidence  of  the  existence  and  attributes  of  this  Being. 
The  heavens,  the  sea,  and  dry  land,  the  change  of 
seasons  and  the  history  of  nations,  are  all  referred 
to  as   proof  of   the  existence  of   this   Creator  and 
Governor  of  the  universe.     It  makes  no  attempt  to 
stand  by  itself;  but  claiming  to  be  the  Word  of  God, 
it   claims   also  that   the  world  was   made   by  Him. 
Whether,  therefore,  we  ignore  the  Bible  in  religion 
or  desire  to  accept  it,  we  are  shut  up  in  the  first 
place  to  the  study  of  nature.     But  if  that  Book  is 
shown  to  be  false,  we  are  shut  up  to  the  study  of 
nature  alone  for  all  knowledge  of  God  and  of  a  fu- 
ture life.     Is  there  any  evidence  then  in  nature,  not 
only  of  the  existence  of  God,  but  that  this  Book 


24  Natural  Theology. 

with  such  wonderful  claims  is  the  word  or  work  of 
Him  who  laid  the  foundations  of  the  hills,  and  fash- 
ioned man  with  this  curious  body,  and  made  him  an 
intelligent  being  ?  That  we  may  be  able  to  answer 
this  question,  we  will  gather  the  wisdom  of  the  past, 
we  will  ourselves  dig  for  some  marble  not  yet  dis- 
covered, that  we  may  read  on  it  the  name  and  works 
of  the  Great  Builder.  If  we  can  from  this  accumu- 
lated evidence  satisfy  ourselves  not  only  of  the  ex- 
istence of  a  God,  who  has  left  His  witness  in  the 
dust  of  the  earth,  in  the  varied  forms  of  life,  and  in 
the  golden  stars  that  adorn  the  blue  enamel  of  the 
sky,  but  can  be  sure  that  He  has  declared  to  us  His 
counsel  in  a  written  Word,  our  work  is  done.  No 
possible  question  can  man  ask  for  himself,  either  for 
his  highest  gratification  or  good,  that  is  not  answer- 
ed in  the  Bible.  Assure  him  that  this  Book  is  what 
it  claims  to  be,  and  he  can  learn  there,  in  language 
too  plain  to  be  misunderstood,  both  his  duty  and  his 
destiny.  Natural  Religion,  as  generally  defined,  is 
what  can  be  learned  of  God  and  our  relations  to 
Him  without  the  Bible.  But  if  the  Bible  is  what  it 
claims  to  be,  Natural  Religion  will  appear  in  its 
greatest  perfection,  not  when  standing  (alone)  like  an 
incomplete  shaft,  as  it  certainly  now  is,  and  proba- 
bly must  of  itself  ever  remain,  but  when  surmounted 
by  that  gorgeous  capital,  the  revealed  Word,  wrought 
by  the  same  hand.  They  will  thus  both  blend  in  a 
divine  harmony  of  proportion  and  structure,  each 
one  the  completion  and  explainer  of  the  other.  It 
was  the  desire  to  show  not  only  that  there  is  a  Na- 


Object  of  the  Lowell  Lectures.  25 

tural  Religion,  but  that  it  either  embraces  the  Bible 
as  a  part  of  its  complete  development,  or  at  least 
that  it  so  harmonizes  with  the  Bible  as  to  show  their 
unity  of  origin,  that  led  the  generous  founder  of  this 
Institute  to  direct  lectures  to  be  given  on  this  subject. 
His  design  is  best  expressed  in  his  own  words,  which' 
we  here  give  as  our  guide  in  limiting  the  range  of 
this  discussion  :  "  As  the  most  certain  and  most  im- 
portant part  of  philosophy  appears  to  me  to  be  that 
which  shows  the  connection  between  God's  revelatio7ts 
and  the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil  implanted  by 
Him  in  our  nature,  I  wish  a  course  of  lectures  to  be 
delivered  071  Natural  Religion  showing  its  conform- 
ity to  that  of  our  Saviour!'  We  have  here  the  re- 
cognition of  the  great  truth  that  there  is  but  one 
religion,  and  that  nature  and  the  Bible  are  parts  of 
the  same  divine  revelation.  If  this  is  so,  if  the 
founder  of  this  lectureship  was  not  mistaken  in 
what  seemed  to  him  the  most  certain  as  well  as  the 
most  important  part  of  philosophy,  then  nature  and 
the  Bible  must  be  studied  together  ;  and  those  who 
would  separate  them,  are  like  those  who  would 
study  astronomy  and  ignore  the  sun ;  or,  charmed 
with  the  glorious  effulgence  of  the  day,  scorn  to 
study  the  brilliant  hosts  that  bestud  the  canopy  of 
night. 

We  find  ourselves  in  this  world  like  children  in  a 
palace  built  and  furnished  by  a  royal  father  whom 
they  have  never  seen.  They  admire  its  grandeur 
and  beauty,  and  wonder  at  its  marvellous  adaptations 
to  their  wants.     As  they  increase  in  age  and  their 


26  Natural  Theology. 

wants  increase,  new  adaptations  are  constantly  dis- 
covered to  meet  those  wants.  They  see  in  one 
place  evidence  of  power,  in  another  of  matchless 
skill  and  of  exhaustless  wealth,  all  so  conspiring  to 
their  gratification  that  they  cannot  doubt  it  was 
intended  for  them.  They  may  not  be  able  to  under- 
stand the  use  of  all  the  parts,  but  the  more  they 
study  them  the  more  they  discover  adaptations 
intended  for  their  good  ;  so  that  love  towards  them, 
and  care  for  them,  are  plainly  apparent  as  control- 
ling the  entire  plan.  Certainly  these  conditions 
would  awaken  in  them  some  desire  to  know  the 
builder  and  owner.  Gratitude  would  seek  an  occa- 
sion of  manifesting  itself ;  or  if  gratitude  found  no 
place  in  the  heart,  there  would  be  the  desire  to  know, 
if  they  were  to  continue  tenants  at  their  own  plea- 
sure, and  enjoy  such  provisions  for  ever,  without  any 
accountability  to  the  provider.  While  much  might 
be  learned  from  the  building  and  its  provisions  of 
the  character  of  the  builder,  it  is  evident  many  ques- 
tions would  arise  for  which  no  definite  answer  could 
be  found  in  the  structure  itself.  It  might  be  doubt- 
ful how  far  the  owner  still  cared  for  the  building  and 
those  it  contained,  or  what  new  relations  they  might 
yet  sustain  to  him.  If  he  still  exercised  watchful 
care  over  them,  there  might  be  doubt  as  to  what  use 
of  these  provisions  would  meet  his  approbation,  or 
what  return  he  might  require  to  be  made  for  the 
benefits  bestowed.  If  now  a  writing  were  pre- 
sented to  them  claiming  to  be  indited  by  him,  in 
which  his  character  was  fully  set  forth,  for  their  more 


Method  of  Proof.  27 

perfect  instruction,  we  can  well  imagine  what  a  trea- 
sure it  would  be  regarded.  With  what  eagerness 
would  they  examine  the  proof  of  its  authenticity, 
when  one  set  of  witnesses  appeared,  assuring  them 
that  their  father  had  spoken  the  words  recorded  to 
them,  stamping  the  writings  with  his  own  royal  sig- 
net, while  bold  declaimers  were  heard  on  every  side 
declaring  the  book  to  be  a  forgery,  or  the  work  of 
men  so  deluded  that  they  thought  themselves  record- 
ing the  words  of  the  king,  when  they  were  penning 
their  own  fanatical  or  mystical  notions  !  Still  more 
would  this  interest  be  increased,  if  it  were  shown  that 
the  gravest  consequences  depended  upon  deciding 
this  question  aright.  If  we  were  called  upon  to 
decide  the  question,  what  would  be  our  method  of 
investigation,  and  what  would  be  to  us  ample  proof 
that  the  palace  and  the  book  were  the  offspring  of 
the  same  mind,  that  they  were  the  work  of  the  same 
master's  hand  ?  Plainly  we  should  never  expect 
fairly  and  successfully  to  settle  the  question  by  the 
examination  of  either  alone  ;  but  making  ourselves 
complete  masters  of  both,  we  should  institute  be- 
tween them  the  strictest  comparison.  Suppose  we 
find  in  the  book  a  (pretended)  history  of  our  palace, 
even  to  its  foundation-stones,  and,  removing  the  rub- 
bish of  ages,  we  find  the  gigantic  courses  laid  as  they 
are  described  in  the  book,  while  beneath  the  corner- 
stones are  found  the  historic  memorials  confirming 
the  written  record,  though  we  know  those  who  pen- 
ned it  never  could  have  personally  known  of  their 
existence.     And    the    more  we   study  the  writing 


28  Natural  Theology. 

the  more  it  agrees  with  what  we  have  found  out  by 
observation  and  experience  of  the  structure  and 
its  provisions,  until  it  comes  to  be  a  grand  epic 
giving  in  words  what  the  solid  stone  and  cunning 
ornaments  of  the  palace  both  reveal.  There  is  har- 
mony, there  is  nothing  to  lead  us  to  doubt ;  there 
is  on  the  other  hand  a  net-work  of  proof  to  convince 
us  that  both  book  and  palace  are  the  product  of 
the  same  royal  intellect  and  skill.  We  are  satisfied 
now  that  we  understand  the  king's  will ;  we  have  the 
law  that  is  to  guide  us,  the  assurance  of  his  con- 
stant, watchful  care,  and  of  untold  future  blessings 
in  store  for  us.  None  but  the  most  sordid  and 
guilty  could  fail  to  rejoice  at  such  a  result,  or  to 
look  upon  every  beauty  of  his  home  with  increased 
delight  and  affection,  and  to  cherish  the  written 
words  as  the  most  precious  gift,  not  only  because  of 
the  blessings  they  promise,  but  because  they  were 
indited  by  a  father's  heart. 

If  we  inquire  now  what  knowledge  of  religion 
man  can  reach  from  the  study  of  nature  alone,  the 
answer  is  most  difficult.  The  trial  has  never  been 
made  under  the  best  possible  conditions.  If  we  are 
to  judge  from  what  has  already  been  done,  we  should 
say  that  in  reference  to  the  highest  truths  of  religion, 
nature  merely  suggests  probable  results,  simply  cre- 
ates the  desire  for  religious  knowledge  without  giv- 
ing it.  It  prepares  the  moral  system  for  its  food, 
but  the  demand  thus  created  must  be  supplied  from 
a  higher  source.  The  ancients  with  minds  equal, 
to  say  the  least,  to  ours,  were  under  the  dominion 


Knowledge  of  the  Ancients.  29 

of  a  false  philosophy,  and  were  mere  children  in 
their  knowledge  of  nature  compared  to  us.  They 
had  neither  the  background  of  history,  nor  the 
thousand  means  of  physical  research  that  we  pos- 
sess. They  might  be  our  masters  in  poetry  and 
sculpture,  and  even  in  mental  acumen  and  philoso- 
phic power,  and  yet  not  be  able  to  grapple  with  this 
question  of  God  in  nature  as  we  can,  any  more  than 
they  were  able  to  unfold  the  wonders  of  the  heavens 
as  we  do,  armed  as  we  are  with  our  telescopes  that 
multiply  the  eye's  power  a  thousand  times,  and 
with  our  analysis  that  traces  planets  that  even  the 
telescope  has  not  revealed.  Socrates,  that  great 
master  of  ancient  times,  seemed  to  consider  the 
movement  of  the  stars  as  above  the  comprehension 
of  men,  and  all  study  of  the  heavens  a  useless  waste 
of  time,  an  attempt  to  pry  into  what  belonged  to  the 
gods  alone  to  know.  Burdened  as  they  were  by 
false  philosophy,  and  beclouded  by  ignorance  of 
physical  science,  we  can  only  wonder  at  the  judicious 
use  they  made  of  the  materials  at  hand,  and  rejoice 
above  all  in  the  strength  of  the  religious  nature 
which  impelled  them  to  accept  the  great  truths  of 
religion,  though  sustained  at  that  time  only  by  so- 
phistry or  defective  proof. 

If  we  ask  what  progress  has  been  made  in  modern 
times,  even  in  the  boldest  attempts  at  establishing 
an  absolute  religion  without  the  aid  of  revelation, 
we  know  not,  the  authors  of  such  systems  know 
not,  how  much  of  their  light  was  first  borrowed,  and 
then  reflected.     Are  the  most  brilliant  and  leading 


30  Natural  Theology. 

truths  that  shine  in  the  firmament  of  their  s)  stems 
like  the  fixed  stars  that  give  their  light  constantly 
and  certainly  from  their  own  bodies,  or  are  they  like 
the  moon  and  primary  planets,  bodies  that  would 
have  eluded  all  human  power  of  discovery  were  they 
not  gilded  by  a  great  central  light  ?  If  our  earth l 
were  lighted  by  the  stars  alone,  we  could  with  our 
present  organs  of  sight  guide  ourselves  in  some 
places  in  safety.  Probably  we  should  infer  from  the 
amount  of  light  received  that  more  would  be  highly 
desirable,  and  that  we  were  fitted  to  enjoy  and  pro- 
fit by  more.  Perhaps  we  might  argue  from  our 
need  of  it,  and  from  our  power  to  profit  by  it,  that 
more  would  be  given,  if  we  were  assured  that  what 
we  already  enjoyed  was  provided  for  us  by  a  bene- 
volent Being,  the  Creator  of  the  eye  and  the  Author 
of  light.  But  all  we  should  be  certain  of  would  be 
the  desirableness  of  more.  This  is  as  far  as  Natural 
Religion  has  ever  gone,  that  we  can  learn.  It  has 
established  the  proof  of  a  God  or  Creator  of  all 
things.  It  has  shown  that  while  all  the  desires  and 
capacities  of  the  inferior  animals  have  a  perfect  pro- 
vision made  for  them,  and  that  while  the  desires 
and  capacities  of  man,  as  a  physical  being,  have  had 
full  provision  made  for  them,  those  desires  which  we 
call  religious  have  never  yet  been  satisfied  by  the 
study  of  nature  alone.  In  fact,  none  of  those  great 
truths  which  relate  to  a  future  life  have  ever  yet 
been  substantiated  except  by  a  written  Word.  We 
simply  indicate  here  as  the  result,  what  we  hope  to 
prove  and  illustrate.     The  assertion  may  be  denied 


The  Bible.  31 

now ;  it  may  be  denied  in  spite  of  any  amount  of 
proof  to  support  it.  But  it  must  be  overthrown  by 
proof  of  what  has  been  done,  and  not  by  the  mere 
assertion  of  what  may  be  done,  as  the  grand  fruiting 
of  some  specious  or  arrogant  philosophy. 

That  some  should  claim  that  they  have  already 
found  in  Natural  Religion  all  the  light  they  need, 
is  by  no  means  strange.  In  such  a  world  as  I  have 
supposed,  lighted  only  by  glimmering  fixed  stars, 
no  doubt  some  would  be  found  to  declare  the  light 
sufficient.  If  they  did  so,  it  would  not  be  proof 
that  they  enjoyed  more  light,  or  had  better  eyes 
than  their  neighbors,  but  rather  that  they  did  not 
fully  appreciate  the  capacity  of  the  eye,  and  had  no 
conception  of  the  advantages  and  glorious  splendor 
of  perfect  day.  And  if  the  written  Word  is  proved 
to  be  an  imposition,  then  man  stands  an  anomaly 
among  the  creatures  of  the  globe,  with  capacities 
and  desires  for  which  no  adequate  provision  has 
been  made.  For  us,  who  have  always  lived  in  the 
light  of  the  Bible,  it  is  specially  difficult  to  know 
what  we  should  have  been  without  it,  or  rather  what 
it  is  possible  for  society  to  become  without  its 
influence. 

Certainly,  the  highest  civilizations  that  the  race 
ever  attained  without  it  were  marred  by  acknow- 
ledged principles  of  injustice,  cruelty,  and  impurity. 
They  contained  within  themselves  the  very  princi- 
ples of  self-destruction  or  degradation.  The  bril- 
liancy of  such  civilizations  is  no  more  to  be  com- 
pared with  a  civilization  founded  upon  the  righteous, 


32  Natural  Theology. 

self-preserving,  and  elevating  principles  of  the  Bible, 
than  the  flash  of  lightning  is  to  be  compared  to  the 
sunlight.  But  though  the  sun  is  the  great  source 
of  light  and  life,  it  is  not  the  only  light  that  beams 
from  the  heavens.  The  stars  are  still  worthy  of 
our  study  and  admiration.  When  the  sun  is  down, 
they  give  light  to  the  traveller.  By  them  the 
mariner  makes  his  way  sure  upon  the  pathless  deep. 
They  are  like  the  sun  itself,  eternal  sources  of  light, 
the  same  in  kind,  though  to  us  offering  faint  and 
feeble  rays  compared  with  his.  From  the  study  of 
them,  we  arrive  at  a  more  perfect  knowledge  of  the 
sun  itself  than  ever  could  be  obtained  from  the 
study  of  the  sun  alone.  They  are  scattered  over 
the  whole  concave,  some  blazing  with  the  brilliant 
light  of  Sirius,  others  apparent  only  to  the  long- 
continued  gaze  of  the  best-trained  eye,  and  whole 
firmaments  are  glittering  with  thousands  beyond, 
that  only  telescopic  power  can  reveal.  They  well 
represent  the  truths  of  Natural  Religion. 

Whatever  ideas  may  have  been  connected  with  the 
word  religion,  it  now  involves  the  idea  of  relation- 
ship to  a  higher  Being.  The  first  condition,  the 
very  foundation  of  this  idea,  is  belief  in  the  exist- 
ence of  such  a  Being.  If  proof  of  this  is  impos- 
sible, then  the  word  religion  may  remain,  and  it 
may  come  to  mean  something  ;  but  its  present  sig- 
nificance must  be  entirely  lost.  Nor  is  the  mere 
existence  of  such  a  Being  a  sufficient  basis  for 
religion.  It  may  be  a  grand  theme  for  philo- 
sophic speculation  ;  but  to  make  religion  possible, 


Topics  Presented.  33 

it  must  be  shown  that  this  Being  sustains  re- 
lations to  us  ;  that  we  either  now  are,  or  in  some 
future  time  shall  be  affected  by  Him.  This  would 
be  sufficient  to  raise  in  the  mind  apprehension,  and 
a  desire  to  know  more  of  what  that  relationship  re- 
quired of  us,  or  at  least  what  it  would  bring  to  us. 
So  far  as  we  might  be  able  to  determine  the  character 
of  this  Being,  His  relations  to  us,  and  the  results  that 
would  flow  to  us  from  that  relationship,  would  our 
religious  knowledge  be  perfect  ;  and  so  far  as  we 
should  act  upon  that  knowledge,  our  religious  prac- 
tice would  be  perfect  also. 

We  have,  then,  the  following  general  topics  pre- 
sented for  our  consideration : 

First. — The  existence  and  attributes  of  God. 

Second. — His  relationship  to  us,  and  the  results 
that  will  flow  from  that  relationship.  This  involves 
a  discussion  of  our  religious  capacities  and  of  our 
immortality. 

Third. — The  necessary  failure  of  nature  to  an- 
swer fully  all  questions  demanded  by  our  intellectual 
and  religious  desires. 

Fourth. — Proof  from  the  physical  universe  and 
the  spiritual  constitution  of  man  that  the  Bible  is 
the  work  of  God,  because  it  is  an  absolute  necessity 
to  man,  completing  in  its  provisions  what  his  nature 
demands,  and  the  light  of  nature  fails  to  reveal — 
involving  a  discussion  of  the  harmony  of  nature  and 
the  written  word. 

The  first  two  of  these  general  topics  are  essential 
to  the  presentation  of  Natural  Religion  as  generally 

2* 


34  Natural  Theology. 

defined  ;  the  last  two  grow  legitimately  from  the 
discussion  of  the  others,  and  are  needed  to  com* 
plete  the  scheme  by  which  it  is  attempted  to  show 
that  natural  and  revealed  religion  are  parts  of  the 
same  system  of  truth,  and  that  nature  and  the 
Bible  supplement  each  other  in  making  the  great 
provision  for  the  religious  nature  of  man. 

We  have  here  no  array  of  subjects  for  brilliant 
declamation,  but  those  great  questions  that  ever 
have  moved  the  soul  of  man  to  its  profoundest 
depths,  and  ever  will  move  it,  as  the  silent  moon 
lifts  the  tidal  waves  from  the  depths  of  the  ocean, 
and  ever  shall  lift  them  in  eternal  succession,  while 
the  earth  revolves  upon  its  axis.  In  a  field  so  vast, 
we  can  only  make  a  few  excursions  at  random  ;  but 
if  in  every  exploration  we  find  evidence  of  the  same 
handiwork,  we  may  well  believe  that  the  Great 
Master  has  left  no  place  without  evidence  of  His 
being.  It  need  not  deter  us  from  the  examination 
of  so  broad  a  field,  that  the  cry  is  raised  that 
sciences  are  so  vast  in  their  requirements  that  only 
a  few  men  can  speak  on  each  with  authority.  This 
is  true  in  regard  to  some  questions  connected  with 
every  science.  Only  a  few  stand  upon  the  dividing 
line  between  the  known  and  the  unknown,  peering  out 
into  the  dark  ocean  for  new  discoveries.  But  when 
truths  are  discovered,  they  soon  become  the  proper- 
ty of  every  educated  mind.  And  every  department 
of  nature,  so  far  as  it  is  really  needed  for  our  pur- 
pose, is  open  to  every  man  of  ordinary  scientific 
attainment.     And  we  call  upon  those  who  can  look 


Conditions  Necessary.  35 

so  far  beyond  their  fellows  to  bring  out  their  dis- 
coveries and  place  them  where  they  belong  in 
science,  and  then  others  can  judge  as  well  as  they 
of  the  simple  question  of  the  bearing  of  such  dis- 
coveries upon  the  proof  of  the  being  and  attributes 
of  God,  and  upon  the  destiny  of  man.  And  the 
pretence  that  is  sometimes  made,  that  no  one  can 
judge  of  the  bearings  of  a  science  upon  these  ques- 
tions, who  is  not  in  a  position  to  undertake  original 
research  in  such  sciences,  is  unsound  in  argument, 
to  apply  no  harsher  term  to  it.  We  simply  say 
that  there  is  enough  within  the  reach  of  all  to  prove 
every  point  we  wish  to  make,  and  we  challenge 
those  who  have  entered  the  very  arcana  of  the 
sciences  to  bring  opposing  testimony, 

We  shall  occupy  the  remainder  of  this  lecture  in 
a  consideration  of  the  conditions  necessary  for  the 
fair  discussion  of  this  subject,  and  of  the  difficulties 
likely  to  be  encountered  in  the  presentation  and 
judging  of  the  proof. 

It  is  a  maxim  of  common  law  and  of  common- 
sense,  that  it  is  useless  to  try  a  case  and  present 
proof  before  one  whose  mind  is  already  made  up. 
To  be  fitted  for  a  juror,  one  must  be  free  from  per- 
sonal bias,  and  competent  to  weigh  the  proof.  In 
all  that  relates  to  Natural  Religion,  we  may  have 
decided  opinions  now  ;  but  from  the  very  nature  of 
the  proof — from  the  impossibility  of  our  having  ex- 
amined and  weighed  it  all,  we  can,  if  we  choose,  put 
ourselves  into  the  condition  of  honest  and  compe- 


36  Natural  Theology. 

tent  jurors.  All  that  we  are  called  upon  to  grant 
in  the  outset  is,  that  the  theory  of  the  case  is  a  pos- 
sible one  ;  that  the  case  in  its  nature  is  one  capable 
of  proof.  We  do  not  ask  you  to  grant  that  it  can 
be  proved  with  the  means  at  our  command,  but 
simply  that  it  is  a  supposable  case  that  convincing 
proof  might  be  produced.  With  this  concession 
there  is  also  need  of  a  determination  to  give  a  care- 
ful and  candid  consideration  to  the  facts  and  argu- 
ments presented  as  proof.  The  condition  of  the 
mind  will  not  be  favorable  to  a  just  consideration  of 
the  proof,  if  the  result  aimed  at  by  the  investigation 
is  considered  undesirable,  or  in  any  respect  adverse 
to  our  interests.  Our  desires  and  our  interests,  real 
or  fancied,  insensibly  affect  our  judgment  of  the 
validity  of  arguments.  It  requires  not  only  honesty 
of  purpose,  but  the  highest  sagacity  in  unravelling 
our  mental  processes,  to  guard  against  the  vitiating 
element  of  our  own  interest  in  the  decision  of  any 
case.  So  readily  is  this  acknowledged  by  all,  that 
it  is  taken  as  one  of  the  plainest  maxims  in  human 
action.  In  the  question  before  us,  our  highest  in- 
terests are  involved.  Answer  it  one  way,  and  we 
are  accountable  to  men  alone.  We  can  free  our- 
selves from  all  accountability  and  from  all  troubles 
with  the  stiletto  or  with  poison.  Answer  it  ano- 
ther way,  and  it  becomes  as  impossible  for  us  to 
escape  responsibility  as  it  is  for  us  to  stop  the  earth 
in  its  course.  We  are  all  either  in  favor  of,  or  op- 
posed to  the  results  which  we  shall  attempt  to  reach 
in  this  investigation.      Would  it  delight  us  to  know 


Difficulties.  37 

that  God  not  only  created  the  world,  but  that  He  is 
the  Author  of  the  Bible  ;  that  we  are  now  in  His 
power,  and  must  ever  remain  there  ?  According  as 
we  honestly  answer  these  questions,  we  find  our- 
selves ready  to  accept  or  reject  the  great  truths 
which  are  essential  to  religion,  natural  or  revealed. 
But  the  fact  that  our  decision  will  not  change  our 
relationships,  and  the  infinite  interests  that  are  at 
stake  if  those  relationships  really  do  exist,  will  do 
much,  if  rightly  appreciated,  to  make  us  honest. 
The  hazard  would  seem  to  be  too  great  for  us  to  be 
willing  to  make  the  least  mistake  in  our  investiga- 
tions. We  ought  to  be  willing  to  admit  every  new 
proof,  and  be  ready  to  abandon,  if  need  be,  our  long- 
cherished  opinions. 

The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  a  proper  presenta- 
tion of  the  subject  are  various,  and  not  easily  reme- 
died. We  meet  with  one  formidable  at  the  very 
outset.  The  subject  is  thought  to  be  hackneyed. 
For  thousands  of  years  it  has  been  one  of  the 
staples  of  human  thought,  and  in  its  investigation 
every  field  of  knowledge  has  been  explored  by  most 
successful  observers.  The  Paleys  and  Bucklands 
will  never  be  surpassed,  and  probably  never  equalled, 
in  their  peculiar  style  and  line  of  argument.  And 
if  there  is  much  that  is  false,  and  much  that  is 
worthless,  yearly  spoken  and  written  on  this  sub- 
ject, it  only  shows  how  familiar  must  be  all  its 
leading  truths  to  the  common  mind.  It  has  then 
no  charm  like  that  which  new  discoveries  and  new 
subjects  of  human  thought  possess  for  the  moment. 


38  Natural  Theology. 

We  are  to  tread  ground  that  has  been  worn  like  the 
great  thoroughfares,  where  we  have  travelled  so 
often  that  not  only  the  great  monuments  along  the 
wayside,  but  the  humblest  flowers  even,  have  been 
seen,  and  every  spot  of  beauty  has  lost  the  charm 
of  novelty.  If  there  is  delight  in  store  for  us,  it 
must  be  from  deepened  convictions  and  clearer 
views  of  truths  already  acknowledged,  or  perchance 
from  some  new  truth  which  we  mav  gather  as 
gleaners  find  here  and  there  a  scattered  ear  after 
the  harvest  has  been  carefully  garnered. 

Still  another  difficulty  which  must  always  be  taken 
into  consideration  is  the  impossibility  of  presenting 
the  proof  in  its  fulness-.  To  do  this,  a  naturalist  must 
present  the  studies  and  observations  of  a  lifetime. 
All  he  can  do  is  to  present  the  great  outcrops  of 
proof,  while  with  the  mental  eye  he  can  himself 
follow  the  strata  deep  beyond  the  reach  of  mere 
sight  as  surely  as  though  they  were  open  to  every 
observer.  One  viewing  the  outcropping  rocks  upon 
a  mountain-top  for  the  first  time,  wonders  that  the 
geologist  can  tell  what  will  be  found  by  those  who 
tunnel  through  its  base  ;  so  there  may  reasonably 
be  expected  to  be  doubt  when  disconnected  proof  is 
presented  for  the  first  time,  while  that  proof,  if  pon- 
dered on  and  seen  in  all  its  relations,  would  seem  as 
firm  as  the  hills  upon  their  rocky  thrones.  When 
we  have  accepted  the  great  truths  of  astronomy  and 
other  physical  sciences  because  they  have  been 
proved  to  us,  we  are  seldom  aware  how  much  our 
ready  acceptance  was  due  to  the  common  belief  of 


Influence  of  Common  Belief.  39 

the  world.  The  rejection  of  the  same  proof  by 
minds  of  the  highest  order,  and  perfectly  conversant 
with  all  the  facts  of  the  case,  shows  this.  That 
proof  which  now  seems  to  us  like  mathematical 
demonstration,  was  long  years  in  overcoming  the 
prejudices  of  the  learned  as  well  as  of  the  vulgar,  so 
as  to  have  any  weight  at  all.  Tycho  Brahe,  with 
his  eye  almost  continually  fixed  upon  the  heavens, 
would  not  believe  the  sun  to  be  the  centre  of  our 
system,  although  daily  recording  observations  that 
would  now  be  received  by  every  intelligent  man  as 
proof  of  this  accepted  truth.  We  do  not  accept  the 
proof  because  we  have  greater  mental  power  or 
greater  knowledge  than  Tycho  Brahe.  We  accept 
the  truth  on  the  belief  of  the  world,  and  then  exa- 
mine the  proof  of  what  we  are  ready  and  willing  to 
believe  on  the  testimony  of  others.  The  belief  of 
men  who  have  given  long  and  patient  investigation 
to  any  subject  ought  to  have  weight  with  us.  The 
world  would  make  slow  progress  were  it  not  a  prin- 
ciple in  our  nature  to  have  faith  in  the  knowledge 
of  such  men.  They  are  sometimes  mistaken,  and 
their  mistakes  do  mischief  and  prevent  progress  for 
a  time.  And  for  this  reason,  while  their  opinions 
are  entitled  to  weight,  we  should  hold  ourselves 
ready  to  reject  them  at  once  when  they  are  shown 
to  be  mistaken.  The  men  who  have  gone  before  us 
are  worthy  of  our  respect,  and  are  generally  entitled 
to  our  confidence  in  the  conclusions  they  have 
reached  ;  but  as  they  have  differed  on  many  points, 
they   are    not    infallible,    and   therefore    it    is    that 


4°  Natural  Theology. 

every  generation  has  need  to  tread  the  ground  for 
itself. 

Still  another  difficulty  is  the  fact  that  objects  in 
nature  have  so  long  been  familiar  that  they  fail  to 
excite  the  emotions,  or  to  convince  the  understand- 
ing as  they  ought,  and  they  thus  fail  to  impress  us 
as  proof  of  creative  power.     They  appear  in   the 
ordinary  course    of  nature;    and    this    unchanging 
course,  always  referable  in  the  first  analysis  to  the 
acknowledged  forces  of  the  physical  world,  fails  to 
impress  us  as  the  expression  of  a  personal  power. 
The    harmony  of  nature    becomes   to  us    like  the 
mysterious  notes  of  the  ^olian  harp,  as  the  light  air 
touches  its  strings,  and  wakes  the  sweetest  music. 
We  have  always  seen  the  combinations  and  changes 
around  us.     Or  if  some  new  and  wonderful  combina- 
tion is  discovered,  we  are  able  to  refer  it  at  once  to 
some  force  already  well  known.     We  content  our 
minds  with  the  word  "  natural."     Whatever  is  com- 
mon   makes   little    impression    on    the    senses,    or 
rather  the  mind   ceases   to  take  cognizance  of  the 
impressions.     Novelty,  on    the    other   hand,  has   a 
charm  that  rouses  the   mind   to  activity,  and  this 
activity  is  necessary  to  the  full  apprehension  of  the 
value  of  the  facts  and  relations  upon  which  we  rely 
for  producing  conviction  of  the  truth.     Aristotle,  in 
a  fragment  preserved  by  Cicero  in  his  De  Natura 
Deorum,  beautifully  illustrates  the  effect  of  common 
things,   if  seen    for  the    first    time.     "  If,"  said  he, 
« there  were  beings  who  lived  in  the  depths  of  the 
earth  in  dwellings  adorned  with  statues  and  paint- 


Loss  of  Effect.  41 

ings,  and  everything  which  is  possessed  in  rich 
abundance  by  those  whom  we  esteem  fortunate ; 
and  if  these  beings  could  receive  tidings  of  the 
power  and  might  of  the  gods,  and  could  then 
emerge  from  their  hidden  dwellings,  through  the 
open  fissures  of  the  earth,  to  the  places  which  we 
inhabit — if  they  could  suddenly  behold  the  earth, 
and  the  sea,  and  the  vault  of  heaven— could  recog- 
nise the  expanse  of  the  cloudy  firmament,  and  the 
might  of  the  winds  of  heaven,  and  admire  the  sun  in 
its  majesty,  beauty,  and  radiant  effulgence ;  and 
lastly,  when  night  had  veiled  the  earth  in  darkness, 
they  could  behold  the  starry  heavens,  the  changing 
moon,  and  the  stars  rising  and  setting  in  the  unvary- 
ing course  ordained  from  eternity,  they  would  surely 
exclaim, '  There  are  gods,  and  such  great  things  must 
be  the  work  of  their  hands.'  " 

These  wonderful  works  have  been  ever  before  us, 
so  that  it  is  hard  for  us  to  realize  that  there  was  a 
time  when  they  were  not — and  harder  still  to  feel 
the  full  force  of  the  proof  which  their  mechanism 
ought  to  be  to  us.  And  the  humbler  objects  of 
natural  history,  not  calculated  to  excite  emotions 
of  grandeur  and  sublimity,  which  we  daily  tread 
beneath  our  feet,  according  to  the  common  laws  of 
mind  pass  unnoticed,  or  when  noticed,  fail  to  con- 
vince us  as  they  ought.  There  may  be  a  wonderful 
arrangement  of  parts,  all  fitted  to  produce  a  certain 
result ;  but  then  we  cannot  see  the  hand  of  God 
tinting  the  flower  and  arranging  each  part  for  its 
appropriate    work.      The   plant   springs    from    the 


42  Natural  Theology. 

ground,  and  its  kind  has  done  so  for  thousands  of 
generations.  If  we  could  but  for  a  moment  see  the 
Divine  Hand  apply  the  rule,  weigh  the  elements, 
and  join  the  varied  cells,  how  different  the  case 
would  be !  But  from  the  work  alone,  the  builder 
must  be  known  to  us.  As  we  walk  among  the  old 
ruins,  it  is  hard  to  realize  that  the  stones  were  hewn 
and  raised  and  joined  by  men.  When  the  Ameri- 
can first  visits  Mount  Vernon,  how  difficult  for  him 
to  realize  that  here  really  is  the  home  of  the  hero 
whose  name  he  has  revered.  It  is  not  strange,  then, 
that  this  difficulty  of  realizing  should  in  the  case  of 
natural  objects  sometimes  end  in  doubt  of  a  Per- 
sonal God.  It  is  not  strange,  at  least,  that  it  should 
result  so  to  those  who  see  no  more  than  they  saw 
when  they  were  children — the  merest  fragments  of 
the  common  forms  that  surround  them.  And  though 
the  wondrous  works  of  design  should  be  described, 
it  is  not  he  who  studies  them  in  books  alone,  but  he 
whose  eye  has  seen  the  living  loop  and  hinge,  that 
can  understand  their  power  to  convince.  What 
knows  the  man  who  has  merely  read  of  Mount 
Washington,  of  the  sense  of  power  he  feels  who 
climbs  the  Titan  blocks  which  form  that  grand 
monument  of  nature's  forces  ?  What  knows  the 
man  who  has  simply  read  of  Niagara,  of  the  emo- 
tions of  him  who  looks  up  to  the  bending  flood  and 
is  deafened  by  its  thunder  ?  It  is  the  real  thing, 
and  not  its  description,  that  must  be  relied  upon  to 
convince.  And  if  we  wish  to  prove  the  strength  of 
the  argument  from  design,  must  we  look  to  those 


Competent  yndges.  43 

who  have  only  read  books  and  looked  upon  the 
same  unvarying  surface  all  their  lives,  or  to  the 
naturalist,  who  has  been  walking  within  the  great 
cabinets  of  nature  all  his  life,  each  day  opening 
some  alcove  filled  with  new  beauties  and  adapta- 
tions ?  Shall  we  inquire  respecting  the  landscape 
in  the  distance,  of  him  who  has  always  walked  upon 
the  plain  at  the  base  of  the  mountain,  or  of  him  who 
daily  ascends  that  mountain  and  views  that  land- 
scape from  every  possible  point  ?  The  common 
observer  is  like  Aristotle's  fancied  beings  in  the 
centre  of  the  earth — remaining  there  for  ever,  hear- 
ing of  the  gods  and  their  works,  but  seeing  the 
whole  array  of  nature  only  as  delineated  in  pictures 
of  landscapes  and  the  orreries  invented  by  men  to 
represent  the  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 
But  the  naturalist,  with  his  trained  senses  for  observ- 
ing, is  as  it  were  raised  from  the  centre  to  the  surface 
to  look  of!  upon  a  new  world. 

And  when  the  question  is  raised  respecting  the 
Bible,  as  to  its  claim  to  being  a  part  of  the  great 
revelation,  shall  we  accept  the  dicta  of  those  men 
who  are  so  ignorant  of  the  Bible  as  hardly  to  know 
the  Old  Testament  from  the  New  ?  Any  man  who 
should  pretend  to  give  a  scientific  opinion  with  the 
same  ignorance  of  nature  that  most  of  those  men 
have  of  the  Bible  who  undertake  to  decide  upon  its 
claims,  would  be  driven  from  all  intelligent  society 
as  charlatans  and  impostors.  Theologians  declaim- 
ing against  the  deductions  of  sciences  of  which 
they  know  nothing,  and  scientific  men  who  have  so 


44  Natural  Theology. 

much  arrogance  or  so  little  philosophy  as  to  ridi- 
cule the  Bible  of  which  they  are  often  profoundly 
ignorant,  it  is  to  be  hoped  will  soon  be  among  the 
things  of  the  past. 

We  are  also  met  with  the  objection  that  we  may 
not  be  right  in  our  physical  explanations.  Old  theo- 
ries in  science  have  been  thrown  aside  as  the  dreams 
of  children.  Why  may  not  ours  ?  Many  of  the  theo- 
ries now  received  may  be  modified  or  rejected.  But 
the  facts  upon  which  we  shall  in  the  main  rely  never 
change.  If  we  introduce  theories  at  all,  it  will  not 
be  as  an  essential  part  of  the  argument.  It  may  not 
be  true  that  water  contains  an  equal  number  of  atoms 
of  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  according  to  the  commonly 
accepted  chemical  theory.  There  may  not  be  atoms 
at  all ;  but  the  fact  still  remains,  and  will  be  un- 
changed while  the  world  stands,  that  one-ninth  of 
water  by  weight  is  hydrogen,  and  eight-ninths  oxy- 
gen, and  that  its  greatest  density  is  between  seven 
and  eight  degrees  above  the  freezing  point. 

And  yet  once  more  we  have  the  unpopular  side, 
because  we  attempt  to  sustain  the  old  belief.  It  is 
more  popular  and  more  flattering  to  our  pride  to  pull 
down  and  build  anew  with  startling  paradoxes,  than 
to  accept  the  old,  although  it  may  be  the  right.  To 
tear  down  is  a  short  and  exciting  work  that  seldom 
fails  to  attract  a  wondering  crowd.  Some  minds  can 
never  be  satisfied  unless  the  thing  presented  is 
new.  If  new,  its  truth  is  little  considered.  We 
have  no  new  and  startling  theories  to  present. 

We  reverently  enter  the  temple  of  Nature,  that  we 


Conclusion.  45 

may  there  read  the  character  of  the  Builder.  Its 
walls,  we  believe,  were  not  piled  by  chance ;  its  cun- 
ning adjustments  are  not  the  sporting  of  the  ele- 
ments. From  foundation-stone  to  topmost  turret, 
we  hope  to  read  our  Father's  wisdom,  power,  and 
love.  We  hope  to  open  the  ark  of  the  testimony 
and  find  his  own  seal  stamped  upon  his  written 
Word.  We  hope  to  hear  Him  speaking  with  one 
voice  from  Nature  and  the  Bible,  declaring  himself 
the  Great  First  Cause,  the  Creator  of  the  world,  our 
Creator,  our  God,  and  our  Father. 


46  Natural  Theology. 


LECTURE  II. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  BELIEF. ADAPTATION  OF  OUR  BODIES 

TO    OUR    WANTS    AND    TO    THE    WORLD. 

Perfect  provision  for  organic  beings. — ATo  provision  in  mate- 
rial world  for  man's  highest  nature. — Clai?ns  of  the  Bible. 
— A  natural  provision  for  man. — P?'incipies  of  belief — 
Theories  of  creation. — First  cause. — Matter  might  be  eter- 
nal.— Beginning  of  life. — Antagonism  of  physical  forces 
and  vitality. — Apparent  harmony  between  them. — Man  an 
effect. — His  creation  to  be  accounted  for. — The  germ  as 
wonderful  as  the  developed  being. — Bible  account  of  creation. 
—  What  we  should  expect  to  find  hi  such  a  creation. — Araturc 
an  unchangeable  record. — Questions  that  would  arise  with- 
out the  Bible. — Aid  of  geology. —  The  existence  of  beings ; 
and  not  their  mode  of  origin,  proof  of  skill  and  power. — 
Adaptation  of  our  bodies  to  our  use  and  to  the  world. — Re- 
lations to  the  world  established  through  the  senses. — Distinc- 
tive use  of  each  sense. — Conditions  necessary  for  sight. — 
Relation  of  light  to  the  atmosphere. — Form  of  objects  and 
effects  of  surface. — Structure  of  the  eye. — Sense  of  hearing 
gives  knowledge  of  objects  beyond  the  range  of  vision. — Me- 
chanism of  the  ear. — Taste  and  smell. — No  special  niechan- 
ism. — Design  shown  by  the  use. — Touch. — Kinds  of  know- 
ledge given  by  it. — All  the  senses  connected  with  the  nervous 
system. —  Vegetative  life. — Relation  of  the  body  to  the  world 
considered. — The  atmosphere. — Structure  of  the  lung. — 
Nutrition. — Sleep. — A  nimals  fitted  for  particular  zones. — 
Man  for  all. — No  special  sciences  needed  to  show  our  adapta- 
tion to  the  world. — Personality  of  the  Creator  inferred 'from 
the  provision  for   our  personality.    Antagonism  in  nature. 

In  the  last  lecture  we  indicated  something  of  the 
object  aimed  at  in  this  course,  and  the  topics  to  be 
introduced  for  proof  and  illustration.  We  shall  first 
attempt  to  show  that  provision  has  been  made  in 


Principles  of  Belief.  47 

the  material  world  for  every  organic  being  on  the 
globe,  including  man,  considered  merely  as  a  physi- 
cal being  ;  and  that  this  provision  is  of  such  a 
nature  as  to  show  the  contrivance  and  oversight  of 
a  personal  Creator.  In  the  second  place,  we  expect 
to  show  that  no  adequate  provision  is  found  in  the 
material  world  for  man's  highest  nature,  so  that  a 
written  Word  is  absolutely  demanded  to  make  as 
full  provision  for  man  as  has  been  made  to  satisfy 
the  capacities  and  desires  of  every  other  creature. 
And  in  the  third  place,  the  question  will  arise 
how  far  the  Bible  can  claim  to  be  from  the  Author 
of  Nature,  by  providing  the  information  which  man's 
highest  nature  demands,  and  thus  becoming  just  as 
natural  a  provision  for  man's  higher  needs,  as  the 
sunlight  and  atmosphere  and  fruits  of  the  earth  are 
for  his  physical  wants. 

Our  first  work  then  is  to  show  the  nature  and  per- 
fection of  the  provision  that  has  been  made  in  the 
world  for  organic  beings,  commencing  with  man  as 
the  highest.  But  before  proceeding  to  this  examina- 
tion, I  ask  your  attention  to  the  consideration  of  some 
principles  of  belief,  which  must  be  accepted  in  all  such 
discussions,  and  to  the  Bible  account,  and  possible  sci- 
entific theories  of  creation.  In  the  preceding  lecture, 
we  took  it  for  granted  that  the  nature  of  the  cause  may 
be  inferred  from  its  effect.  The  palace  must  have  a 
builder,  and  something  of  the  character  of  the  design- 
er and  builder  can  be  learned  from  his  work.  It  is 
impossible  for  us  to  believe  that  anything  has  been 
produced  without  a  cause— that  anything  can  begin 


48  Natural  Theology. 

to  exist  of  itself.  Everything  in  the  universe  must 
either  be  self-existent  or  be  an  effect.  If  self-exist- 
ent, it  must  have  existed  from  all  eternity ;  if  an 
effect,  it  must  have  been  mediately  or  immediately 
produced  by  that  which  is  self-existent  and  eternal. 
We  are  driven  by  our  analysis  back  from  cause  to 
cause  till  we  come  to  a  First  Cause,  necessarily  self- 
existent  and  eternal.  That  cause  could  not  spring 
from  nothing,  and  therefore  could  not  begin  to  be. 
This  we  are  sure  of,  or  nothing  can  be  accepted 
as  truth.  As  we  trace  back  the  chain  of  cause 
and  effect,  we  come  necessarily  to  believe  in  some- 
thing which  is  not  an  effect,  but  the  source  of  all 
effects.  Not  to  believe  in  something  eternal  is  sim- 
ply absurd.  And  that  something  has  produced  all 
secondary  causes  and  the  results  which  we  see  in  the 
universe.  What  was  that  something  ?  Was  it  simply 
matter  and  the  forces  of  matter  ?  So  far  as  we  know, 
matter  may  have  existed  for  ever.  There  seems 
to  be  perfect  evidence  of  design  in  the  very  consti- 
tution of  matter  and  in  the  relation  of  its  forces  ;  but 
still,  if  one  chooses  to  regard  simple  matter  as  eter- 
nal, we  see  no  absurdity  in  such  a  belief.  But  we 
then  ask,  if  matter  is  self-existent,  is  it  able  to  pro- 
duce all  the  results  which  we  witness  ?  We  know 
that  it  has  not  existed  always  in  its  present  form 
upon  our  globe.  But  all  the  geologic  changes,  so 
far  as  mere  matter  and  the  physical  changes  were 
concerned,  might  have  been  produced  by  the  action 
of  these  forces  that  we  acknowledge  to  be  the  con- 
stant accompaniments,  if  not  essential  properties  of 


Origi?i  of  Life.  49 

matter.  But  there  was  a  time  when  life  was  not 
here.  This  will  be  acknowledged  by  every  geolo- 
gist. Now,  life  is  only  manifested  in  connection  with 
organization.  Did  the  vital  principle  seize  upon 
matter,  and  organize  it  ?  This  would  imply  that  it 
resides  somewhere  free  from  matter.  Is  vitality  a 
force  accidental  in  its  manifestation,  correlated  to 
some  other  force,  developed  by  the  relationship  of 
different  kinds  of  matter;  or  was  matter  first  organ- 
ized by  a  creator,  and  then  life  joined  to  it  ?  There 
are  those  who  accept  the  second  supposition  and 
believe  in  spontaneous  generation,  the  production  of 
life  from  matter  and  physical  forces,  and  the  evolu- 
tion of  higher  types  by  development  from  lower. 
We  pass  for  the  present  the  geologic  argument, 
which  we  believe  to  be  conclusive  against  this  the- 
ory, and  ask  its  supporters  how  it  comes  to  pass 
that  the  physical  forces  tend  to  originate  an  organ- 
ism, when  the  moment  it  is  produced  they  tend  to 
destroy  it.  And  it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  some 
authors  who  have  expressed  their  belief  in  the  pro- 
duction of  life  through  chemical  forces,  have  also 
expressed  their  belief  in  the  antagonism  of  life  and 
those  forces.  We  leave  to  them  the  task  of  harmo- 
nizing their  own  views.  The  organic  being  strug- 
gles for  existence  and  lives  only  because  the  vital 
principle  holds  in  abeyance  the  physical  forces  and 
makes  them  its  servants.  In  a  certain  sense  it  is 
true  that  the  physical  forces  build  up  all  organic 
structures.  But  the  moment  vitality  is  gone,  they 
tear  down  the  structure  which  they  have  unwillingly 

3 


$o  Natural  Theology. 

labored  to  construct  under  its  control,  and  they  cease 
not  their  work  until  every  particle  has  taken  the 
inorganic  form.  In  the  perfectly  adjusted  steam- 
engine  moving  the  ship  against  wind  and  tide,  or 
weaving  finest  fabrics  with  iron  fingers,  it  seems  to 
the  thoughtless  observer  that  the  steam  is  a  willing 
servant,  bending  its  energies  to  the  work.  But  the 
mission  of  the  steam  is  to  shatter  and  destroy.  It 
rushes  into  the  cylinder  not  to  move  the  machinery, 
but  in  very  hatred  of  itself,  and  struggles  to  escape. 
It  is  the  genius  of  man  that  controls  the  struggling 
monster  by  bands  of  iron  too  strong  for  him  to  break, 
till  in  his  rage  he  lifts  the  piston  and  moves  the 
swift  machinery,  as  he  darts  howling  into  the  air. 
Thus  also  does  vitality  control  and  use  the  adverse 
forces  of  the  inorganic  world.  As  well  might  we 
think  that  the  steam  which  drives  the  piston  origi- 
nated the  locomotive,  or  the  locomotive  the  engi- 
neer that  controls  it,  as  to  think  that  life  is  the  off- 
spring of  electricity  or  any  other  physical  force.  It 
is  latest  born  of  all  the  forces,  if  it  is  proper  to  call 
it  a  force  at  all ;  and  the  time  may  come  when  it  will 
vanish  from  our  globe  and  leave  the  physical  forces 
victors  on  the  field.  But  while  it  is  here,  it  holds 
its  ground  by  warfare.  It  builds  up  only  through 
the  agency  of  physical  forces.  They  build  organized 
beings  only  under  its  control.  We  have  had  of  late 
the  announcement  made  that  we  must  expunge  from 
our  text-books  the  assertion  that  the  vital  principle 
overrides  or  controls  the  chemical  forces.  We  may 
expunge  it  from  our  text-books,  but  we  might  as 


Cause  and  Effect.  5  1 

well  expunge  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  or  the  planet 
Neptune  from  our  astronomies. 

But  let  us  for  the  sake  of  the  argument  grant  that 
matter  may  originate  life.  As  it  is  impossible  for 
us  to  accept  anything  as  a  cause,  unless  it  is  ade- 
quate to  produce  the  effect,  we  look  at  once  for  the 
cause  of  man.  We  know  with  certainty  that  his 
body  is  produced.  Physical  man  is  therefore  an 
effect.  If  matter  and  the  physical  forces  produce 
life,  they  must  also  produce  life  with  all  the  adjuncts 
which  we  find  in  physical  man,  or  his  creation  is 
still  to  be  accounted  for.  It  is  not  enough  to  say 
that  a  germ  was  originated  by  matter,  and  that  germ 
by  development  became  man.  To  be  satisfied  with 
this  statement  is  to  deceive  ourselves  with  words. 
That  germ  must  have  had  in  it  from  the  beginning 
all  the  capacity  of  developing  into  man.  It  must 
have  been  sufficient  to  produce  man.  And  no  one 
can  intelligently  believe  that  matter  could  produce 
such  a  germ,  unless  he  believes  matter  could  produce 
a  man  in  his  highest  possible  physical  and  intellec- 
tual development.  One  result  is  just  as  wonderful 
as  the  other  ;  one  supposition  is  just  as  reasonable  as 
the  other.  And  any  attempt  to  account  for  man 
upon  this  globe  from  a  germ  not  as  wonderful  as 
man,  and  requiring  as  high  creative  power,  is  simply 
illogical  and  a  deceiving  of  ourselves  with  sophistry. 
Like  an  attempt  to  produce  force  where  no  force  ex- 
ists, it  is  worthy  of  the  wildest  dreamers  of  perpetual 
motion.  We  have  now  in  the  Bible  a  simple  account 
of  creation.     A  Great  First  Cause  is  introduced. 


52  Natural  Theology. 

We  are  not  told  that  He  created  matter  and  ordained 
the  manifestation  of  its  forces  ;  but  we  are  certainly 
left  to  infer  this,  since  He  is  represented  as  produc- 
ing by  His  command  those  changes,  the  introduction 
of  light  and  the  gathering  of  the  seas,  that  we  know 
were  produced  by  the  operation  of  these  forces. 
According  to  this  account,  up  to  a  certain  time 
there  was  simply  matter,  whether  created  or  eternal, 
passive  in  the  hand  of  God.  When  the  appointed 
time  had  come,  he  joined  life  to  matter.  Man  was 
first  organized  in  full  perfection,  and  then  the  breath 
of  life  was  breathed  into  him.  We  may  reject  this 
account ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  find  among  all  the 
speculations  with  which  the  world  has  been  favored 
another  method  of  creation  more  simple  or  less  won- 
derful, viewed  simply  from  a  scientific  stand-point. 
Having  shown  that  the  Bible  account  of  the  intro- 
duction of  man  upon  the  earth  requires  no  greater 
power  than  the  production  of  this  germ  that  should 
in  the  end  produce  man,  we  have  the  same  ground 
a  priori,  for  accepting  the  Bible  account  as  any  other. 
We  are  not  called  upon  to  ignore  the  Bible,  but  im- 
partially to  compare  its  teachings  with  those  of  na- 
ture, that  we  may  accept  or  reject  its  claims. 

And  we  may  say,  as  the  first  result  of  the  com- 
parison, that  the  Bible  account  of  the  introduction 
of  life  upon  the  globe,  and  even  of  the  creation  of 
man,  is  as  reasonable,  when  tested  by  the  relations 
of  cause  and  effect,  as  any  theory  of  creation  the 
most  orthodox  development  theorists  have  ever 
been  able  to  give  us. 


Man  the  Image  of  God.  53 

If  they  ask  us  to  grant  the  creation  of  a  germ 
that  in  myriads  of  ages  should  develop  into  man, 
we  answer  that  if  we  accept  their  method  of  crea- 
tion, we  require  the  same  power  to  produce  the 
result.  If  they  ask  us  to  believe  that  a  germ  of 
low  type  developed  into  higher  types  until  in  ages  it 
came  to  be  man,  we  answer  that  the  very  first  prin- 
ciples of  belief  forbid  it.  It  is  asking  us  to  believe 
in  an  effect  produced  without  an  adequate  cause. 

Among  the  assertions  of  the  Bible,  we  find  this 
in  the  very  first  chapter,  that  God  created  the 
heavens  and  the  earth.  If  matter  is  eternal,  cer- 
tainly all  its  relations  in  constituting  this  world  are 
here  referred  to  His  wisdom  and  power.  Every 
order  of  creature  was  made  by  Him,  and  last  of  all 
man,  fashioned  in  his  own  image.  If  this  is  true, 
and  if  God  is  such  a  being  as  He  is  set  forth  to  be 
in  the  Bible,  there  are  certain  things  that  we  should 
naturally  expect  to  find  in  the  universe.  If  we 
failed  to  find  them,  we  should  so  far  be  led  to  doubt 
the  truth  of  the  record,  unless  the  record  itself  gave 
notice  of  the  defect  and  gave  a  satisfactory  reason 
for  its  occurrence. 

1.  If  man  is  the  image  of  God,  then  he  will  be 
able  in  some  measure  to  enter  into  His  plans  and 
comprehend  His  character. 

2.  If  God  is  infinite  in  all  His  attributes,  it  would 
naturally  be  expected  that  some  of  His  plans  would 
be  too  vast  for  man  to  comprehend  fully,  embracing 
too  much  of  space  and  requiring  too  much  time  for 
their  completion. 


54  Natural  Theology. 

3.  We  should  expect  that  all  things  would  show 
design — design  of  the  same  kind  as  the  works  of 
man  would  exhibit,  and  never  falling  below  them  in 
perfection. 

4.  Man  being  confessedly  the  highest  type  of  cre- 
ation on  the  earth,  we  should  expect  that  the  world 
would  be,  in  a  certain  sense,  created  for  him,  or  at 
least  that  it  would  have  more  important  relations  to 
him  than  to  any  other  being — that  he  would  be  the 
central  figure  of  creation. 

5.  We  should  expect  provision  to  be  made  not 
only  for  the  body,  but  for  the  mind  ;  or  at  least  we 
should  expect  as  full  provision  to  be  made  for  all 
the  powers  and  faculties  of  man  as  has  been  made 
for  the  lower  animals  ;  this  would  involve  provision 
for  his  emotional  nature  and  for  unlimited  improve- 
ment in  all  his  faculties. 

Finally,  we  should  expect  to  find  man  and  the 
world  fitted  for  each  other,  and  the  same  fitness 
running  down  through  the  whole  order  of  nature  ; 
every  animal,  and  plant,  and  grain  of  dust,  showing 
evidence  of  the  work  of  a  Being  like  man — above 
him  indeed,  but  above  him  only  in  degree  and  con- 
dition of  existence. 

All  this  we  should  expect,  if  we  had  never  given 
one  thought  to  the  study  of  nature,  but  were  now 
coming  to  it  for  the  first  time  to  find  proof  in  support 
of  the  Bible.  If  we  found  all  these  conditions  fully 
met,  we  might  well  be  satisfied  with  the  proof.  If 
we  failed  to  find  them,  we  should  doubt  the  record  ; 
because  a  book,  though  claiming  to  be  from  God, 


Geology.  55 

is  written  by  man.  But  the  everlasting  hills  were 
not  raised  by  man.  No  man  can  roll  back  the 
stony  tablets  of  the  earth  and  blot  out  their  record. 
No  skill  of  man  can  adjust  the  nice  mechanism 
of  the  living  beings  now  upon  earth  ;  no  power  of  his 
can  sustain  them  for  a  moment  when  it  is  adjusted. 
If  there  is  a  God  who  created  all  things,  we  know 
that  in  nature  we  can  find  his  handiwork,  which  all 
the  wisdom  and  strength  of  men  are  as  powerless 
to  create  or  change  as  they  are  to  bind  the  earth 
in  its  course,  or  to  blot  out  the  sun  in  the  heavens. 

On  the  other  hand,  suppose  we  had  never  seen  or 
heard  of  a  written  Revelation,  but  were  possessed 
of  all  the  knowledge  of  nature  we  now  have,  what 
are  some  of  the  questions  that  would  be  suggested 
to  us,  and  some  of  the  inferences  we  should  draw 
from  the  world  as  it  is  ?  How  came  man  upon  the 
earth  ? — would  certainly  be  a  question  that  could 
not  fail  to  demand  an  answer.  With  our  present 
knowledge,  the  argument  of  endless  succession  is 
folly,  and  its  labored  refutation  by  Paley  and  others, 
mere  lumber.  Such  arguments  were  needed  in  the 
day  when  Paley  could  say  that  if  asked  how  a  stone 
came  upon  the  heath,  he  might  answer  that,  for 
aught  he  knew,  it  had  lain  there  for  ever.  But  in 
our  day,  when  that  stone  can  be  traced  back  to  the 
bed  from  which  it  was  torn  ;  when  the  forces  that 
formed  it,  and  those  that  tore  it  from  its  resting- 
place  are  well  understood — we  should  expect  a  dif- 
ferent line  of  argument.  In  fact,  the  whole  science 
of  geology  has  come  in  since  Paley's  day  ;  a  science 


5  6  Natural  Theology, 

not  yet  perfect,  but  entirely  changing  the  field  of 
argument  for  or  against  natural   religion.     By  its 
light  we  can  go  back  into  the  dark  ages  of  the  globe's 
history,  when  there  was  not  only  no  man,  but  no 
living  thing  upon  the  earth.     To  this  all  men  of  sci- 
ence are  agreed.     This   is   certainly  an  important 
point,  and  makes  an  important  difference  in  the  argu- 
ment.    We  can  go  back  to  the  barren  rocks  and  trace 
in  the  successive  strata  rising  above  them  the  intro- 
duction of  all  new  forms  of  life.     The  only  question 
is,  how  they  were  introduced,  or  how  they  began  to 
be.     There  is  no  question  about  the  fact  of  a  begin- 
ning.    As  to  the  mode  of  their  origin,  two  diverse 
views  are  held,  one  requiring  the  same  creative  pow- 
er as  the  other,  as  we   have  already  shown,  so  that 
an  a  priori  argument  cannot  be  made  out  conclu- 
sively in  favor  of  either.     We  must   rely  entirely 
upon  facts  observed  in  nature.     We  are  now  leaving 
out  of  view  the  Bible  account,  relying  solely  upon 
nature  to  tell  us  of  God.      And  if  left  entirely  to 
nature,  we  could  not  see  a  particle  of  difference 
between  the  theory  of  distinct  creations  and  the  so- 
called  development  theory  in  proving  the  existence 
and  perfections  of  God.     For  we  have  already  shown 
that  the  creation  of  a  germ  that  shall  develop  into 
a  perfect  being,  involves  the  same  creative  power  as 
the  creation  of  the  being  itself.     So  the  creation  of 
a  germ  that  should  evolve  all  created  beings  in  their 
geologic  and  living  order,  would  require  equal  skill 
and  power  with  the  distinct  creation  of  every  speci- 
fic form.     If  we  look  at  an  oak,  we  see  in  it  evidence 


Origin  from  a  Germ.  57 

of  design  in  every  fibre  of  its  wood,  in  its  leaf,  its 
flower,  and  fruit.  But  that  monarch  of  the  forest 
was  once  represented  by  a  single  cell,  containing  a 
power  that  was  to  determine  the  form  of  every  fibre 
of  that  tree  ;  that,  by  controlling  the  physical  forces, 
was  to  originate  every  tissue  in  the  exact  order  and 
proportion  in  which  it  was  needed,  to  determine  the 
outline  of  every  leaf,  and  the  form  and  flavor  of  the 
fruit.  Surely,  the  evidence  of  skill  and  power  was 
as  great  in  the  creation  of  that  germ  as  it  would  be 
in  the  creation  of  the  full-grown  tree  in  the  twin- 
kling of  an  eye.  And  the  creation  of  a  germ  that 
should  give  origin  to  trees  of  every  kind,  with  all 
their  adaptations  to  the  world  and  to  the  animal 
kingdom,  would  certainly  be  as  wonderful,  and  be 
proof  of  as  great  skill  and  power,  as  the  creation  of 
the  germ  of  a  single  oak.  The  existence  of  such 
creatures  as  are  found  upon  the  globe  is  the  proof 
of  skill  and  power,  and  the  manner  of  their  origin 
does  not  in  the  least  affect  the  question.  We  are 
to  inquire  what  the  creation  of  all  the  plants  and 
animals  now  upon  the  globe,  in  a  single  moment, 
would  prove  in  regard  to  their  Creator.  And  what- 
ever such  an  instantaneous  creation  would  prove, 
the  present  creation  proves,  without  regard  to  the 
time  or  manner  that  the  species  were  introduced. 

In  our  first  lecture  we  stated  our  case  to  be  like 
that  of  children,  who,  on  coming  to  the  years  of  un- 
derstanding, find  themselves  in  a  palace  perfectly 
furnished  for  their  use,  and  set  themselves  to  find 
from  the  provisions  of  the  structure  evidence  of  the 

3* 


58  Natural  Theology. 

character  of  the  builder,  and  of  his  relationship  to 
them.  I  propose  now  to  apply  the  same  line  of 
argument  to  another  purpose,  the  adaptation  of  our 
bodies  to  our  use,  as  well  as  the  adaptation  of  the 
world  to  them.  It  is  evident  that  a  castle  would,  if 
built  by  a  wise  designer,  have  reference  to  the  lo- 
cality in  which  it  was  placed.  It  could  only  meet  the 
wants  of  its  occupants,  as  its  structure  should  have 
reference  to  the  climate  and  other  conditions  of  the 
country.  In  a  land  of  snow  and  rain,  we  should 
expect  carefully-formed  roof's,  and  only  there.  We 
should  expect  windows  where  light  could  reach 
them,  and  in  fact  all  the  changes  of  day  and  night, 
and  change  of  season  to  be  provided  for.  We 
should  find  then  certain  contrivances  which  would 
be  adapted  to  our  wants  in  all  places,  and  certain 
other  provisions  and  contrivances  having  reference 
to  the  particular  condition  of  the  outward  world  in 
that  place.  In  the  same  light  we  may  view  our  own 
bodies,  or  the  world  in  reference  to  our  bodies.  We 
are  conscious  of  our  own  existence,  and  that  we  use 
our  bodies.  They  are  as  distinct  from  us  as  the 
houses  we  inhabit.  They  were  prepared  for  us. 
They  are  not  only  temples  for  us  to  dwell  in,  but  it 
is  by  means  of  them  alone  that  we  establish  rela- 
tions with  the  external  world.  So  far  as  the  senses 
are  wanting,  so  far  the  external  world  is  a  blank  to 
us.  As  we  know  from  geology  that  there  was  a 
time  when  there  was  no  man  on  this  earth,  so  we 
know  from  observation  that  each  one  of  us  must 
die,  and  that  we  must  crumble  back  to  dust.     We 


The  Senses.  59 

know  that  there  is  nothing  in  our  bodies  that  can- 
not be  found  in  every  spadeful  of  garden  soil.  If 
the  Bible  declares  that  the  first  man  was  made  of 
the  dust  of  the  earth,  science  declares  that  all  living 
men  are  fashioned  of  the  same  material.  Having 
this  knowledge,  we  are  prepared  to  present  certain 
considerations  in  regard  to  our  bodies,  showing  their 
adaptation  to  the  world  in  which  we  live.  And  for 
the  present  we  shall  regard  man  simply  as  a  physi- 
cal being,  reserving  for  some  future  lecture  the 
mutual  adaptation  of  the  world  and  the  higher 
nature  of  man.  And  we  care  nothing  now  about 
geologic  development  theories.  We  take  the  fact 
of  our  own  existence  as  it  is,  and  inquire  in  re- 
gard to  our  present  relations.  Our  physical  good 
demands  that  we  should  have  the  power  of  compre- 
hending the  world  in  all  the  respects  in  which  it  is 
possible  for  matter  or  its  forces  to  affect  our  bodies. 
The  senses  completely  meet  this  want.  And  we 
wish  now  to  consider  the  senses  simply  as  a  means 
of  establishing  relations  with  the  external  world. 
We  are  too  apt  to  confine  ourselves  to  the  mere 
mechanism  of  the  eye  or  ear,  without  considering 
how  the  senses  supplement  each  other,  and  without 
considering  the  provision  made  in  the  world  that  it 
may  be  a  fit  place  for  the  exercise  of  the  senses. 
The  eye  would  be  useless  without  all  the  properties 
of  light  ;  the  ear  would  have  no  power  in  a  world 
without  an  atmosphere.  Sight  enables  us  to  avoid 
danger,  and  seek  distant  needful  objects.  What  a 
vast  length  of  time  and  wearisome  labor  would    it 


6o  Natural  Theology. 

require  for  a  blind  man  to  learn  what  one  glance  of 
the  eye  may  give  to  one  blessed  with  sight !  This 
sense  also  gives  certain  ideas  which  the  blind  could 
never  acquire,  as  of  color,  transparency,  and  play  of 
light.  But  of  those  properties  and  relations  that 
could  be  learned  by  the  sense  of  touch,  the  eye  will 
take  in  more  in  the  landscape  in  one  moment  than 
could  be  otherwise  learned  in  a  lifetime.  A  race 
of  blind  men  could  not  exist  on  this  globe. 

The  sense  of  sight  alone,  as  a  means  of  adapting 
us  to  the  world,  would  strike  us  as  wonderful  in  its 
results,  and  worthy  of  the  conception  of  the  highest 
intelligence  in  adapting  means  to  ends,  if  we  knew 
nothing  of  the  adjustments  by  which  sight  is  se- 
cured. We  can  conceive  of  the  power  of  sight  as 
direct  perception,  without  the  aid  of  light,  or  of  a 
special  organ  corresponding  to  the  eye.  But  con- 
stituted as  we  are,  we  see  only  through  the  agency 
of  light  ;  and  we  perceive  light  only  by  a  special 
organ  ;  and  objects  only  in  consequence  of  a  pecu- 
liar structure  of  that  organ.  Of  all  of  these  rela- 
tionships of  light  to  objects,  and  of  light  to  the  eye, 
and  of  the  parts  of  the  eye  to  each  other,  not  one 
of  them  is  a  necessary  condition  of  matter.  The 
arrangement  of  so  many  things  by  which  this  won- 
derful power  of  perceiving  distant  objects  is  secured, 
is  the  only  one  that  will  secure  the  end  desired,  out 
of  an  endless  number  of  arrangements  that  can  be 
conceived  of.  The  first  thing  we  notice  is  the  rela- 
tion of  the  light  to  the  atmosphere,  by  which  it  bathes 
all  objects,  unless  they  are  cut  off  from  it  by  special 


Light  Eye.  61 

obstructions.  That  is,  every  particle  of  the  atmo- 
sphere seems  to  be  a  point  from  which  light  is  re- 
flected in  all  directions  in  right  lines.  And  every 
object,  either  in  consequence  of  its  reflection  or 
absorption  of  light  at  every  point,  forms  an  image 
at  every  possible  position  that  can  be  taken,  from 
which  straight  lines  can  be  drawn  to  the  object. 
And  the  rays,  passing  from  a  multitude  of  objects 
across  each  other,  never  interfere.  Even  when 
passing  through  an  opening  in  the  shutter,  a  thou- 
sand objects  may  be  painted  on  the  screen,  and  yet 
each  one  be  as  perfect  as  though  that  were  the  only 
object  in  the  range  of  vision.  The  glowing  threads 
that  weave  the  gorgeous  web  of  light  never  tangle, 
and  never  blend  the  pictures  that  they  are  ever 
forming.  Whether  we  take  the  proof  with  the  eye 
or  with  the  photographic  plate,  we  find  these  cross- 
ing lines  tracing  at  the  same  moment  in  a  thousand 
places  the  perfect  picture  of  every  object  on  the 
landscape.  We  cannot  but  admire  the  varied  forms 
of  objects,  and  the  effect  of  surface  in  producing 
color,  by  which  distinctness  of  every  part  is  secured. 
The  wisdom  and  skill  of  man  might  be  challenged 
to  conceive  of  means  more  perfect  than  light  in  its 
varied  relations  to  matter,  to  secure  distinctness  of 
individual  objects.  No  less  worthy  of  admiration 
is  the  organ  through  which  we  are  to  perceive. 
Whoever  contrived  it,  understood  perfectly  all  the 
properties  of  light,  and  the  wants  of  the  being  that 
was  to  use  it.  We  might  introduce  here  modifica- 
tions of  the  eye  in  the  lower  animals  suited  to  their 


62  Natural  Theology 

special  wants.  But  as  we  are  considering  the  rela- 
tions of  man  to  the  world,  we  need  not  pass  beyond 
our  subject  to  find  arguments  for  design.  The  eye 
of  man,  though  limited  in  its  power  to  a  certain 
range,  gives  all  that  the  common  wants  of  life  de- 
mand. And  if  man  needs  greater  range  of  vision, 
he  has  but  to  study  the  eye  itself,  and  fashion  instru- 
ments to  increase  its  power  ;  as  he  is  able  when  the 
proper  time  has  come  in  his  civilization,  to  increase 
by  science  and  art  the  efficacy  of  nearly  all  his  phy- 
sical powers.  For  the  ordinary  purposes  of  life, 
neither  telescopic  nor  microscopic  adjustment  of  the 
eye  is  needed. 

But  the  eye  has  not  only  the  power  of  vision 
so  necessary  to  man,  but  it  is  an  instrument  of 
power,  an  instrument  made  up  of  distinct  parts,  of 
solids  and  liquids,  of  transparent  and  opaque  tissues, 
of  curtains,  and  lenses,  and  screens.  Its  mechanism 
can  be  accurately  examined  and  the  use  of  each 
part  as  perfectly  understood  as  any  of  the  works  of 
man.  We  examine  every  part  of  it  as  we  would  a 
microscope.  We  have  first  the  solid  case  which  is 
to  hold  all  the  machinery,  and  upon  which  are  to  be 
fastened  the  cords  and  pulleys  of  its  skilful  mount- 
ing. This  covering,  opaque,  white,  and  glistening, 
like  silver  on  the  back  and  sides  of  the  eye,  in  front, 
where  the  light  must  enter,  suddenly  becomes  trans- 
parent as  the  clearest  crystal.  Within  this  is  a 
second  coating,  that  coming  to  the  front  changes 
just  as  suddenly  into  an  opaque  screen,  through  the 
tissues  of  which  no  ray  of  light  can  pass.     That 


Structure  of  the  Eye.  63 

screen  is  self-adjusting,  with  a  net-work  that  no  art 
of  man  ever  equalled.  Whether  expanding  or  con- 
tracting, its  opening  in  the  centre  always  remains  a 
perfect  circle,  adapted  in  size  to  the  intensity  of 
light.  How  much  light  shall  enter  the  eye  it  deter- 
mines without  aid  from  us.  Next  there  must  be 
connection  with  the  brain,  the  seat  of  the  being  for 
whom  the  provision  is  made.  These  two  coatings 
are  pierced  upon  the  back  part  of  the  eye,  and  a 
thread  drawn  out  from  the  brain  is  passed  through 
this  opening  and  spread  out  within  the  eye  as  a 
delicate  screen  upon  which  all  impressions  are  to  be 
made.  To  fill  the  larger  portion  of  the  cavity,  there 
is  packed  into  it  a  clear  jelly,  and  imbedded  in  this 
a  lens,  fashioned  with  a  skill  that  no  artist  can  equal, 
to  refract  the  light  and  throw  the  image  on  the  per- 
ceptive screen.  In  front  of  this  lens  is  another 
humor,  not  like  jelly  as  the  other,  because  in  this, 
that  delicate  fringe,  the  iris,  is  to  float,  and  nothing 
but  a  watery  fluid  will  answer  its  purpose.  Here 
then  we  have  a  great  variety  of  materials  all  brought 
together,  of  the  exact  quality  and  in  the  quantity 
needed,  placed  in  the  exact  position  which  they 
ought  to  occupy,  so  perfectly  adjusted  that  the  most 
that  man  can  do  is  to  imitate  the  eye  without  ever 
hoping  to  equal  it. 

Nor  is  the  curious  structure  of  the  eye  itself  all 
that  is  worthy  of  our  attention.  The  instrument 
when  finished  must  be  mounted  for  use.  A  cavity 
is  formed  in  solid  bone,  with  grooves  and  perfora- 
tions for  all  the  required  machinery.     The  eye,  when 


64  Natural  Theology. 

placed,  is  packed  with  soft  elastic  cushions  and  fas- 
tened by  strings  and  pulleys  to  give  it  variety  and 
rapidity  of  motion.  Its  outer  case  is  to  cover  it 
when  not  in  use,  and  protect  it  when  in  danger. 
The  delicate  fringe  upon  its  border  never  needs 
clipping  ;  and  set  like  a  well-arranged  defence,  its 
points  all  gracefully  turn  back,  that  no  ray  of  light 
may  be  obstructed.  Above  the  projecting  brow  is 
another  defence  to  turn  aside  the  acrid  fluids  from 
the  forehead,  while  near  the  eye  is  placed  a  gland 
that  bathes  the  whole  organ  with  a  clear,  soothing 
fluid,  to  prevent  all  friction  and  keep  its  outward 
lens  free  from  dust,  and  polished  for  constant  use. 
When  we  consider  all  this,  the  perfect  adaptation  of 
the  eye  to  our  wants,  the  arrangement  of  every  part 
of  its  structure  on  strict  mechanical  and  optical 
principles,  and  all  the  provisions  for  its  protection, 
we  pronounce  the  instrument  perfect,  the  work  of  a 
Being  like  man,  but  raised  immeasurably  above  the 
most  skilful  human  workman.  What  shall  we  say 
when  we  learn  that  this  instrument  was  prepared  in 
long  anticipation  of  its  use  ;  that  there  is  a  machin- 
ery within  it  to  keep  it  in  constant  repair ;  that  the 
Maker  not  only  adjusted  the  materials,  but  that  he 
was  the  chemist  who  formed  all  these  substances 
from  the  dust  of  the  earth  ?  We  may  be  told  that 
the  architect  found  this  dust  ready  at  hand,  existing 
from  all  eternity.  We  may  not  be  able  to  prove  the 
contrary,  nor  do  we  need  to  for  this  argument.  It 
is  enough  for  our  present  purpose  to  know  that  the 
eyes  with  which  we    now  see,  these   wonderfully 


Hearing.  65 

complex  and  perfect  instruments,  were  not  long 
since  common  earth,  dust  upon  which  we  perchance 
have  trod. 

We  can  understand  the  mechanism  of  the  eye, 
we  can  comprehend  the  wisdom  that  devised  it  ;  but 
the  preparation  of  materials,  and  the  adjustment  of 
parts,  speak  of  a  power  and  skill  to  which  man  can 
never  hope  to  attain.  When  he  sees  his  most  cun- 
ning workmanship  surpassed  both  in  plan  and  exe- 
cution, shall  he  fail  to  recognise  design  ?  Shall  we 
fail  to  recognise  a  builder  when  we  contemplate  such 
a  work  ? 

Hearing  is  the  only  other  sense  connected  with 
special  mechanical  contrivance.  It  is  as  well  adapt- 
ed to  its  purpose  as  the  sense  of  sight,  although  the 
ear  in  its  mechanism  may  not  be  so  wonderful  as 
the  eye,  and  the  use  of  some  of  its  parts  more  diffi- 
cult of  comprehension.  Hearing  gives  us  knowledge 
of  objects  far  beyond  the  reach  of  vision,  when 
thick  walls,  mountain  ranges,  and  part  of  the  con- 
vex earth  divides  them  from  us.  It  is  perfect  in 
darkness,  when  the  eye  is  powerless.  This  sense  is 
affected  only  by  vibrations  of  the  air,  and  the  ma- 
chinery connected  with  it  is  adapted  to  collect  them 
and  transmit  the  impression  to  the  inner  portion 
of  the  ear,  where  the  auditory  nerve  like  a  watchful 
sentinel  waits  and  watches  to  telegraph  the  signals 
to  the  brain.  We  are  thus  warned  of  danger  in  the 
distance ;  we  are  invited  to  enjoyment ;  we  hold  con- 
verse with  friends  ;  and  have  poured  in  upon  us,  for 
our  instruction,  the  mingled  sounds  of  all  animate 


66  Natural  Theology. 

and  inanimate  nature.  The  ear  thus  beautifully 
supplements  the  eye  in  revealing  distant  objects,  and 
thus  connecting  us  with  the  world  in  which  we  live. 

The  senses  of  taste  and  smell  are  more  intimately 
connected  with  food  ;  and  the  securing  and  select- 
ing of  this  are  of  prime  importance  in  our  relations 
to  the  world.  We  can  gain  no  knowledge  of  the 
taste  of  objects  unless  they  are  within  our  reach, 
and  we  need  none.  But  odors  may  be  to  us  a 
means  of  enjoying  distant  objects,  or  of  avoiding 
poisons  floating  in  the  air.  There  is  no  special 
mechanism  connected  with  either.  There  is  simply 
a  power.  And  hardly  less  wonderful  is  the  power 
of  a  simple  membrane  to  distinguish  the  number- 
less flavors  and  odors,  than  the  most  complex  ma- 
chinery, although  design  can  only  be  shown  in  the 
use  of  these  senses  to  man  in  multiplying  and  per- 
fecting his  relations  to  the  world. 

The  sense  of  touch  supplements  sight,  by  giving 
us  knowledge  of  solids  as  distinguished  from  sur- 
faces, of  hardness  and  temperature.  So  far  as  it  is 
needed  for  our  protection,  it  is  diffused  over  the 
whole  body;  but  for  securing  certain  knowledge  it  is 
keenest  in  the  finger-tips — in  those  organs  best  fit- 
ted to  trace  out  varied  surfaces  and  curious  forms. 
When  now  we  group  the  senses,  what  a  marvellous 
combination !  Impressions  of  objects  come  darting 
through  space  on  the  wings  of  light,  crossing  in  ten 
thousand  lines,  yet  never  mingling.  The  ear  is 
charmed  with  sounds.  Odors  and  flavors  delight 
us,  and  touch  protects  from  danger,  or  thrills  us 


Vegetative  Life.  6? 

with  pleasure.  What  other  knowledge  could  we 
desire  to  have  of  the  world  of  matter  which  the 
senses  do  not  give  ?  What  other  is  needed  for  our  life 
or  our  enjoyment  ?  We  stand  in  bodies  protected  by 
the  senses,  like  armies  with  picket-guards,  through 
which  nothing  can  enter  without  giving  the  counter- 
sign ;  and  these  guards  telegraph  to  us  all  know- 
ledge of  the  outer  world. 

We  have  seen  some  wonderful  instruments  that 
indicate  the  presence  of  electricity,  or  change  of  tem- 
perature. But  how  all  human  contrivances  sink  into 
insignificance  when  compared  with  the  perceptive 
powers  of  these  bodies,  through  the  combined  action 
of  the  senses  !  We  recognise  the  body  as  but  an 
instrument,  but  its  relations  to  the  world  through 
the  senses  is  a  marvel.  It  is  a  tenement  worthy  to 
be  the  habitation  of  the  being  made  in  the  image 
of  God.  In  its  relations  to  the  world,  there  is  a 
wisdom  and  skill  manifested  worthy  of  a  God.  We 
look  up  to  the  stars,  take  in  the  glories  of  the  land- 
scape, and  drink  in  delicious  music,  without  once 
considering  the  thousand  strings  that  have  been 
adjusted  by  the  Master's  hand  that  there  may  be 
this  divine  harmony  of  adaptation  for  the  whole 
race  from  age  to  age. 

The  senses  are  connected  with  a  nervous  system, 
or,  where  no  nerves  can  be  detected,  with  a  nervous 
power.  Sensation  is  distinctive  of  animal  life,  and 
is  the  foundation  of  all  the  functions  of  relation. 
But  there  is  in  man  a  vegetative  life,  by  which  the 
body  is  built  up  and  preserved.     The  functions  of 


68  Natural  Theology. 

this  lower  life  involve  perhaps  as  perfect  and  strik- 
ing correspondence  between  the  organs  of  the  body 
and  the  inanimate  world,  as  has  been  seen  in  con- 
nection with  the  senses.  It  has  long  been  the  cus- 
tom of  natural  theologians  to  trace  out  the  mecha- 
nism of  the  organs  of  the  body  which  certainly  show 
design  ;  but  we  propose  to  direct  attention  rather 
to  the  same  sort  of  correspondence  between  the 
body  and  the  world,  which  has  already  been  shown 
when  treating  of  the  senses.  So  long  as  we  confine 
our  attention  to  the  minute  structure  of  the  body, 
the  Creator  is  represented  rather  as  a  cunning  artif- 
icer. But  when  we  consider  the  relations  of  the 
body  to  the  world,  we  are  impressed  more  with  the 
wisdom  and  benevolence  of  the  Great  Architect,  and 
we  thus  gain  fuller  revelations  of  His  character. 
The  investigation  requires  thought  and  patience, 
but  in  the  scheme  we  have  marked  out  we  cannot 
omit  it.  It  makes  but  little  difference  what  relation 
of  the  body  we  consider  first.  For  convenience,  we 
will  take  one  that  is  most  constant.  We  must 
breathe.  The  oxygen  of  the  air  is  the  great  chemi- 
cal agent  to  aid  in  giving  heat,  and  that  constant 
change  of  material  in  the  body  by  which  strength 
and  even  life  itself  are  secured.  It  is  a  constant 
want ;  and  to  make  the  world  inhabitable,  it  must  be 
everywhere.  Water  and  food  may  be  taken  at 
stated  intervals,  but  the  air  must  be  ever  present. 
We  walk  in  an  ocean  of  it.  In  deepest  caverns,  on 
highest  mountains,  on  every  foot  of  the  earth,  we 
are  sure  to  find  air,  and  always  of  the  same  composi- 


The  Atmosphere.  69 

tion.  Although  there  are  two  gases  simply  mixed 
together,  their  nature  is  such  that  the  mixture  is 
exactly  the  same  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  No 
chemical  analysis  can  detect  a  deficiency  of  either 
element.  We  may  have  occasion  to  point  out  other 
manifestations  of  design  in  the  atmosphere,  but  for 
the  present  we  notice  its  adaptation  to  the  wants  of 
man  in  the  uniformity  of  its  composition  and  its 
constant  presence.  But  in  man  we  find  the  lung 
for  its  reception.  What  a  wonderful  organ,  ready 
when  the  first  breath  of  the  new-born  child  is  to  be 
taken  !  It  has  never  been  used  before  ;  but  it  is  all 
ready,  like  the  engine  when  the  steam  is  first  thrown 
into  it.  The  opening  is  there  for  the  air  to  enter ; 
the  thousand  tubes  wind  through  the  substance  till 
it  becomes  a  mere  mass  of  thinnest  membrane. 
But  all  through  these  delicate  linings  the  arteries 
weave  their  scarlet,  gauzy  web,  to  spread  the  blood 
to  every  part,  and  when  the  air  has  wrought  its 
change,  the  thousand  veins  gather  the  vital  fluid 
and  send  it  back  to  do  its  appointed  work.  Every 
breath  involves  a  combination  of  mechanical  and 
chemical  action  compared  with  which  the  steam- 
engine  is  a  rude  machine.  The  pouring  of  the 
blood  to  the  lung,  and  its  passage  to  the  heart,  and 
all  this  complex  machinery,  was  adjusted  with  refer- 
ence to  the  air.  Was  it  air,  think  you,  that  formed 
those  channels  to  bring  and  carry  the  vital  fluid  ? 
Had  it  any  tendency  to  adjust  them  ?  What  but 
the  wisdom  and  skill  of  a  High  Intelligence  could 
contrive  so  complex  but  perfect  arrangements  ;  as 


yo  Natural  Theology. 

perfect  before  the  circulation  of  the  blood  was  known 
to  man  as  it  is  now  !  He  may  learn  how  not  to 
interfere  with  this  work  of  nature,  but  no  contri- 
vance of  his  can  supersede  or  even  change  it. 

The  body  must  be  nourished.  Made  of  the  dust 
of  the  earth,  it  must  have  the  power  of  gathering 
up  that  dust,  and  of  moulding  it  into  bone  and 
sinew  and  nerve.  This  is  the  problem  before  us. 
To  do  this  directly  the  body  has  no  power.  The 
vegetable  kingdom  is  the  channel  through  which 
the  elements  are  made  available  for  our  use.  The 
corn  and  the  fruits  are  so  much  soil,  or  so  much  air 
moulded  and  flavored  to  delight  us,  while  they  pass 
into  the  very  tissues  of  our  bodies  and  become  a 
part  of  them.  We  need  not  speak  now  of  the  com- 
plex machinery  nor  the  mysterious  chemistry  by 
which  the  transformations  are  produced ;  but  the 
course  by  which  the  nerve  and  muscle  of  the  arm, 
or  the  delicate  materials  of  the  eye,  came  from 
the  dark  cold  earth  into  their  present  living  forms, 
we  know  as  well  as  though  we  could  with  the  eye 
trace  each  particle  in  its  complete  circuit.  The 
sunlight  and  the  showers  bring  up  the  precious 
fruits.  The  stomach  of  man  is  adapted  to  the  fruits 
which  the  earth  produces.  They  are  adapted  to 
give  him  life  and  enjoyment. 

Other  adaptations  are  of  importance,  though  less 
marked.  Sleep  has  an  obvious  relation  to  the  revo- 
lution of  the  earth  ;  our  strength  to  the  attraction 
of  the  earth  ;  our  power  of  endurance  to  its  temper- 
ature.     While    other   animals  are  fitted  by  their 


Structure  of  the  Body.  yi 

nature  for  the  zone  they  are  to  inhabit,  and  by  the 
process  of  moulting  for  the  change  of  seasons,  man, 
made  to  wander  over  the  whole  earth,  to  change 
his  place  rapidly,  has  no  fixed  provision  for  his 
protection.  He  is  left  to  clothe  himself,  and  thus 
to  fit  himself  at  any  time  for  any  place  on  this  earth 
of  which  he  is  the  lord  and  ruler. 

We  find  our  bodies  then  wonderfully  adapted  to 
our  wants,  to  give  us  a  knowledge  of  the  world  and 
minister  to  our  pleasure.  Things  are  fitted  for  their 
use.  We  want  no  chemistry  and  no  anatomy  to 
tell  us  this.  It  would  be  just  as  apparent  to  a  rea- 
sonable being  that  the  body  of  man  is  fitted  for  its 
work,  adapted  to  the  world  and  adapted  to  the 
intelligent  being  that  inhabits  the  body,  though  he 
had  never  looked  beneath  the  skin  and  knew  nothing 
of  the  curious  chemical  changes  in  the  body,  as  it 
would  to  the  best  anatomist  and  physiologist  in  the 
world.  We  know  that  our  eyes  are  fitted  for  sight, 
our  ears  for  hearing,  our  limbs  for  walking,  our 
tongues  for  speech,  and  our  hands  for  cunning 
work.  If  we  can  look  upon  a  little  child  when  first 
waking  to  consciousness  of  a  new  world,  or  upon  a 
trained  man  in  the  fulness  of  his  strength,  and  not 
feel  that  there  is  a  perfect  adaptation  of  means  to 
ends  to  bring  the  person  into  proper  relations  to 
this  world  in  which  it  is  to  dwell,  then  the  scalpel 
may  remain  in  its  case,  and  the  crucible  of  the 
chemist  may  remain  cold.  They  can  simply  multi- 
ply proof,  but  they  can  never  present  any  proof 
higher  in  kind  than  we  have  without  them.     It  may 


72  Natural  Theology. 

be  said  that  they  show  more  special  contrivance  in 
the  structure  of  the  body,  and  that  the  principle  of 
perfect  adaptation  is  continued  to  the  last  analysis 
of  every  organ  and  every  process  ;  and  this  is  true. 
But  if  this  adaptation  is  not  seen  and  recognised 
as  proof  of  an  intelligent  Creator  at  the  outset, 
then  it  never  will  be  seen.  When  you  fairly  come 
to  the  edge  of  the  ocean,  if  your  friend  cannot  see 
it,  he  never  will,  though  he  sail  a  thousand  leagues 
upon  it.  If  we  see  that  man  is  fitted  to  this  world, 
the  question  naturally  arises,  was  he  fitted  to  a 
world  eternally  existing,  or  was  the  earth  made  in 
reference  to  him  ?  The  earth  was  before  man,  that 
is,  before  his  body.  His  body  was  either  fash;oned 
to  the  existing  world,  or  the  world  was  all  pre- 
arranged in  reference  to  the  being  that  should  be 
placed  upon  it.  Either  of  these  suppositions  implies 
design,  and  would  be  enough  to  establish  the  exist- 
ence of  a  Personal  Creator.  There  is  a  great  deal 
of  discussion  as  to  what  constitutes  personality. 
But  man  is  a  person,  and  his  wants  have  been  fully 
understood  and  provided  for.  Grant,  if  you  please, 
that  we  existed  from  all  eternity,  and  that  it  is  only 
in  connection  with  the  body  that  we  become  con- 
scious ;  still,  we  find  ourselves  with  these  bodies 
which  we  did  not  prepare.  We  know  that  we  have 
no  more  direct  power  over  the  structure  and  growth 
of  our  own  bodies,  or  of  our  offspring,  than  we  have 
over  the  bodies  of  other  persons.  The  body  of  the 
savage  is  as  perfect  in  all  its  parts  as  the  body  of 
him  who  can  number  every  bone  and  locate  every 


Perfect  Machinery.  73 

nerve.  The  knowledge  implied  in  the  structure  of 
our  bodies,  which  fits  them  so  perfectly  to  our 
wants,  is  the  same  in  kind  as  we  possess,  but  infi- 
nitely higher  in  degree.  It  is  of  the  same  kind, 
because  we  can  understand  the  work  and  approve 
of  it.  It  is  higher,  because  we  feel  conscious  that 
we  never  could  have  devised  it. 

We  need  not  spend  time  in  pointing  out  the  exact 
adaptation  of  each  part  of  the  body,  in  form,  to  its 
function.  Every  part  is  so  well  adapted  to  its  office, 
that  no  contrivance  of  man  could  improve  it.  He 
can  discover  no  new  principle  in  science  that  might 
have  been  introduced  to  better  advantage.  We  do 
not  suppose  that  the  most  ardent  believer  in  human 
improvement  expects  the  time  will  ever  come  when 
human  science  can  suggest  a  single  improvement  in 
the  mechanical  structure  or  chemical  laboratory  of 
the  human  system.  This  wonderful  machine  is  a 
model  towards  which  he  can  always  work,  but  which 
he  can  never  equal.  This  he  is  ready  to  acknow- 
ledge, whatever  may  be  his  belief  as  to  how  it  came 
into  existence.  The  more  we  dissect  and  examine, 
the  more  every  part  meets  our  commendation.  We 
would  not  dare  to  alter  a  single  joint,  nor  add  a 
nerve  or  tendon  ;  and  when  the  chemical  or  vital 
process  is  beyond  our  ken,  as  it  often  is,  the  result 
worked  out  in  the  healthy  body  is  the  exact  result 
which  is  needed  for  the  perfection  of  the  machine. 
We  feel  sure  that  the  hidden  machinery  is  wisely 
adjusted,  although  so  minute  as  to  be  beyond  the 
reach  of  our  microscopes.     We  have  first  a  frame- 

4 


74  Natural  Theology. 

work  of  the  best  materials  we  could  desire,  every 
piece  made  on  mathematical  principles,  all  parts 
formed  and  joined  so  as  to  secure  the  greatest 
strength  and  motion  where  most  needed  ;  so  formed 
as  to  protect  the  most  important  organs,  and  to  give 
attachment  to  the  hundreds  of  cords  that  are  to  give 
it  motion,  perforated  here  and  there  for  the  nerves 
and  arteries.  Some  of  these  nerves  are  taken  from 
the  control  of  the  will,  but  only  those  which  are 
necessary  for  carrying  on  the  vital  processes.  These 
might  become  a  burden  to  man,  or  he  might  abuse 
them.  The  heart  asks  no  leave  of  us  to  beat.  These 
bands  of  telegraphic  wires  are  all  bound  into  symme- 
trical wholes  and  covered  to  protect  them  from  inju- 
ry, and  yet  not  so  covered  as  to  impede  their  action, 
or  to  shut  off  from  the  external  world  those  that  are 
needed  to  establish  relations  with  it.  The  body, 
thus  wonderfully  arranged,  is  ever  kept  in  order  by 
its  own  machinery.  From  one  central  organ,  the 
stomach,  is  carried  to  every  part  of  the  system,  not 
only  material  enough  to  make  all  repairs,  but,  most 
marvellous  of  all,  just  the  kind  of  material  which  is 
needed.  If  lime  is  wanted,  lime  is  carried.  If  silica 
is  the  required  substance,  silica  is  never  wanting. 
If  iron,  or  carbon,  or  chlorine,  or  any  other  element 
is  required,  wonderful  to  tell,  at  the  appointed  time, 
without  thought  on  our  part,  that  element  is  select- 
ed and  sent  to  its  appointed  place.  Every  worn 
piece  is  carefully  removed,  made,  perhaps,  to  sub- 
serve some  secondary  use  for  a  time,  but  finally  it  is 
thrown  from  the  machine,  while  a  new  piece  takes 


Personality  of  the  Creator.  75 

its  place.  The  machine  never  wears  out,  but  run- 
ning a  certain  round,  finishes  the  work  for  which  it 
was  made. 

And  this  is  the  machine  some  would  have  us  be- 
lieve to  be  the  work  of  chance,  or  a  sort  of  accumu- 
lation of  improvements  like  the  steam-engine,  with 
this  important  difference,  that  while  the  steam-engine 
is  the  result  of  all  the  mechanical  skill  the  greatest 
men  of  the  world  have  been  able  to  bring  to  bear 
upon  it,  the  human   body,   thousands   of  years  ago 
just  as  perfect  as  it  now  is,  has  become  what  it  is  with- 
out a  personal  architect.     If  one  can  believe  this, 
we  have  no  controversy  with  him.     We  frankly  ac- 
knowledge that  we  have  no  proof  that  we  believe 
will  satisfy  him.     We  do  not  expect  him  to  believe 
in  a  God,  and   of  course  not  in  a   Bible.     We   say 
that  his   mind    runs    in    such   a   channel,   and    his 
standard  of  proof  is  such,   that  we  can    have   no- 
thing in  common   in   science,  and  nothing  in  reli- 
gion.    But  if,  on  the  other  hand,  when  we  know 
that   there  was  an  era  in  the  history  of  this  globe 
when  man  came  to  exist  for  the  first  time  ;  when 
we   consider    all   the    adaptations  of  this  body    to 
our  use,   without  any   contrivance   or   thought   on 
our  part  ;  when  we  find  this  machine  kept  in  con- 
stant working  order,  doing  its  own  repairs,  complet- 
ing a  given  round  of  labor,  if  the  conditions  only 
are  observed  ;  when  we  see  all  this,  if  compelled  by 
the  very  law  of  our  being  to  believe  that  these  bodies 
are  the  contrivance  of  a  personal  Creator,  then  we 
have  a  starting-point.      Then  we  are  prepared  to 


;6  Natural  Theology. 

show  the  proof  of  the  handiwork  of  the  same  Being 
in  every  department  of  nature — we  are  prepared  for 
the  possibility  of  a  written  Word,  and  of  His  con- 
stant government  and  control  of  His  works.  If  we 
do  not  see  in  all  this  proof  of  the  existence  of  such 
a  Being,  then  further  search  in  nature  is  useless. 
We  must  admit  the  existence  of  a  Being  before  we 
can  intelligently  seek  to  understand  His  character 
and  relations.  Throwing  aside  all  study  of  nature 
as  useless,  there  may,  indeed,  be  metaphysical  spe- 
culations in  regard  to  the  existence  of  God  ;  but 
all  natural  theology  and  natural  religion,  as  these 
terms  are  now  understood,  vanish.  The  human 
mind,  even,  would  not  be  absolute  proof  of  the  ex- 
istence of  such  a  Being  ;  for  it,  according  to  the 
speculations  of  Plato,  may  have  existed  from  all 
eternity.  It  is  the  body  alone  that  we  know  began 
to  be  ;  and  in  its  perfect  adaptation  to  our  personali- 
ty, created  or  uncreated,  must  we  find  our  first  argu- 
ment for  a  personal  Creator,  and  in  the  provisions 
made  for  it,  the  first  indications  of  His  fatherly  care. 
But  the  adaptation  of  the  body  to  the  world  and  its 
physical  forces  is  not  perfect.  There  is  pain  and 
premature  death,  an  absolute  struggle  for  existence. 
And  this  antagonism  is  plainly  not  necessary  in  the 
nature  of  things.  We  shall  endeavor,  in  some  future 
lectures,  to  show  that  the  world,  with  all  its  antago- 
nisms, is  best  for  man  as  he  is.  His  physical  nature 
is  rendered  liable  to  suffer,  by  the  very  constitution 
of  things,  for  the  benefit  of  his  moral  nature,  to 
which   the  physical  is   subservient.     But  why,  we 


Physical  Antagonism.  yy 

may  still  ask,  was  it  necessary  that  there  should  be 
such  an  antagonism,  that  the  higher  nature  could 
reach  its  fullest  development  only  through  the  labor, 
and  pain,  and  suffering,  of  the  lower  nature  ?  We  do 
not  believe  such  an  antagonism  was  necessary,  al- 
though we  must  acknowledge  that  it  does  exist.  It 
does  not  come  within  the  scope  of  these  lectures  to 
discuss  the  theories  of  these  antagonisms,  how 
they  were  produced,  nor  their  ultimate  tendency. 
We  are  content  to  take  man  and  the  world  as  we 
find  them,  and  attempt  to  show  that  this  physical 
antagonism  works  out  for  man  in  his  present  imper- 
fect state  a  higher  good. 


LECTURE  III. 

ADAPTATION  OF  ANIMALS  TO  THE  WORLD  BY  STRUC- 
TURE, FUNCTION,  AND  INSTINCT. 

Adaptation  of  A ni?nals  to  the  World. — Special  adaptations. 
— Chance  excluded. — Man  as  a  physical  being  differs  only  in 
degree. — His  sources  of  enjoyment  complex. — In  ani?nals 
nothing  but  adaptations  to  this  world. —  Whole  classes  to  be 
treated  of. —  Water  Aiiijnals. — Microscopic. — Coral  Ani- 
mals.— Jelly-fishes. — Starfishes. — Mollusks. — Perfect  pro- 
vision for  each  for?n. — The  Pinna. — Saxicavas. — Nautilus. 
—  Worms.  —  Crustaceans.  —  Insects. — Fishes. — Reptiles.  — 
Birds. — Maimnals. — Fitted  for  change  of  season. — Hiber- 
nation.— Relation  to  length  of  year. — Instinct. — Supple- 
ments structure  and  function. — Gives  higher  type  of  life. 
— Defined. — Intelligence  in  Animals.  —  Vegetative  life  in 
Animals. — Relation  of  instinct  to  specific  structure. — The 
Natica. — Insti?ict  often  blind  in  its  action. —  The  Cicada. — 
Tent  moth.  —  Migratio?i  of  fishes.  —  Conscious  parental 
relation  in  birds. — Uniformity  of  action  resulting  from 
instinct. —  Wide  range  of  instinct  in  Mammals. — The 
Muskrat. — Instinct  of  the  young  supplemented  by  that  of 
the  parent. — The  body  and  mind  fitted  for  each  other. 

We  have  thus  far  considered  man  merely  as  an 
animal ;  and,  as  such,  we  have  seen  the  adaptation 
of  his  body  to  the  world  in  which  he  lives. 

His  physical  structure,  and  the  nature  and  power 
of  his  senses,  show  that  he  was  either  adapted  by 
creation  to  this  globe  already  existing,  or  that  the 
globe  was  fashioned  and  placed  as  it  now  is  in  anti- 
cipation of  the  being  that  was  to  inhabit  it.     It  is 


Harmony  of  Adaptation.  79 

impossible  to  consider  the  mutual  relations  of  man 
as  a  physical  being,  and  this  world,  to  each  other 
without  recognising  design  in  the  varied  adjustments 
— design  involving  the  highest  wisdom  to  devise, 
the  greatest  skill  to  execute,  and  showing  the 
greatest  benevolence  as  characteristic  of  the  de- 
signer. 

It  was  impossible  for  us  to  trace  this  relationship 
without  having  thrust  upon  us  the  varied  adaptations 
having  reference  to  a  higher  nature  than  is  possessed 
by  any  mere  animal.  This  higher  nature  of  man 
requires  a  separate  discussion ;  but  for  the  present 
we  pass  to  the  consideration  of  the  lower  forms  of 
animal  life,  and  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  to  show 
their  adaptations  to  the  world,  the  adaptations  of  the 
two  kingdoms  to  each  other,  and  of  the  parts  of 
each  individual  to  meet  its  own  wants  and  neces- 
sities. 

We  have  among  the  lower  animals  all  the  general 
adaptations  which  we  find  in  man,  but  varied  accord- 
ing to  the  peculiar  position  which  the  animal  is  to 
occupy.  It  is  impossible  to  study  any  one  of  them 
without  constantly  learning  more  and  more  of  the 
perfection  of  its  relations  to  the  world.  Each  one 
is  not  only  provided  for  in  general,  as  an  animal, 
but  he  is  specially  provided  for  as  that  particular 
kind  of  animal.  It  is  impossible  to  point  out  one 
in  which  continued  observation  has  not  detected 
increased  harmony  of  adaptation  between  the  world 
and  the  wants  of  the  animal,  as  determined  by  the 
very  idea  of  his  structure.     When  we  have  so  far 


80  Natural  Theology. 

understood  the  structure  of  an  animal  as  to  feel  that 
we  have  reached  the  fundamental  idea  in  his  creation, 
we  expect  all  subsequent  study  will  realize  that  idea 
more  perfectly.  If  the  fundamental  idea  is  a  fish, 
an  animal  to  live  in  water,  and  breathe  by  gills,  then 
every  possible  variation  which  we  can  find  will  never 
be  a  defect,  but  some  modification  of  the  leading 
plan  for  carrying  out  more  fully  the  main  idea  in 
connection  with  some  special  condition  of  life.  No 
kind  can  be  found  so  apparently  abnormal  in  form  as 
not  to  show  wisdom  in  its  fitness  for  some  particular 
condition  of  life;  no  modification  of  organs  so 
strange,  that  the  naturalist  will  not  look  at  once  for 
its  purpose,  and  expect  to  find  conditions  of  life  for 
that  animal  fully  indicating  the  wisdom  of  the  change 
in  structure.  Since  there  is  perfect  adaptation  for 
each  species  and  each  variety,  the  number  of  forms 
specially  provided  for  thus  becomes  so  great,  that 
anything  like  chance  is  excluded.  That  five 
hundred  thousand  different  kinds  of  beings  could 
be  perfectly  provided  for,  so  that  the  ingenuity  of 
man  cannot  suggest  a  single  improvement  in  refer- 
ence to  any  one  of  them,  not  only  proves  design  ori- 
ginating from  a  high  intelligence,  but  leaves  no  plau- 
sible ground  for  any  other  explanation. 

We  have  seen  that  the  world  is  either  fitted  for 
man  as  a  sentient  being,  or  he  is  so  adapted  to  it 
as  to  secure  enjoyment  by  the  very  process  of 
living.  In  this  respect  he  does  not  differ  essen- 
tially from  the  other  members  of  the  animal  king- 
dom.      But   his    enjoyment    as    a    physical    being 


Relations  of  Classes.  8 1 

is  so  linked  with  that  enjoyment  which  the  world  in 
all  its  relations  secures  to  his  higher,  intellectual, 
and  moral  nature,  that  it  becomes  as  difficult  to 
separate  one  source  of  enjoyment  from  the  other 
and  assign  the  exact  proportion  to  each  nature,  as  it 
is  to  separate  those  natures  from  each  other  in  their 
wonderful  blending  in  the  constitution  of  man. 
There  is,  therefore,  a  certain  distinctness  gained 
when  treating  of  the  adaptations  of  the  lower  ani- 
mals to  the  world,  which  it  is  impossible  to  secure 
when  treating  of  the  complex  being,  man.  In  the 
lower  animals  we  find  nothing  beyond  adaptations 
to  this  world.  They  are  physical  beings  only. 
There  is  nothing  to  be  eliminated.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  can  learn  the  completeness  of  their  adapta- 
tions only  by  observation.  For  our  'experience  is 
rendered  an  imperfect  standard  on  account  of  this 
very  complexity  of  our  nature. 

We  propose  in  the  remainder  of  this  lecture  to 
treat  mainly  of  those  relationships  by  which  whole 
classes  of  animals  are  fitted  to  the  world,  and  re- 
serve for  a  distinct  chapter  many  of  those  special 
adaptations  by  which  particular  species  or  varieties 
are  fitted  for  unusual  conditions.  But  in  treating 
of  the  adaptations  of  animals  to  the  world,  we  must 
include  their  general  relationships  to  each  other, 
because  their  very  existence  often  depends  upon 
such  relationships. 

The  waters  are  the  home  of  a  large  proportion 
of  the  animal  kingdom.  In  them  we  find  a  vast 
range  of  animal  life  beyond  the  reach  of  ordinary 

4* 


82  Natural  Theology. 

vision.  The  microscope  may  open  wonders  in  a 
drop.  And  when  we  multiply  the  multitudes  of 
animate  beings  that  dart  across  the  microscopic 
field  by  the  drops  in  the  pool  or  on  the  ocean's  sur- 
face, from  which  our  drop  was  taken,  computation 
is  impossible  and  imagination  fails  to  conceive  of 
the  numbers  that  swarm  upon  the  earth.  What 
variety  in  form,  what  varied  structure  and  mode  of 
life  are  found  among  these  atoms  of  the  animal 
kingdom  !  We  cannot  expect  yet  to  understand  all 
their  uses  and  relations.  But  not  one  can  be  found 
that  has  not  perfect  adaptation  to  the  place  it 
inhabits.  It  glides  or  rows  through  the  yielding 
element  apparently  as  intent  on  pleasure,  certainly 
as  intent  on  securing  the  means  of  living,  as  the 
highest  tribes  of  land  or  water.  There  is  adapta- 
tion of  means  to  ends  in  the  structure  of  each  one 
of  this  multitude  of  different  forms,  so  that  we  might 
find  evidence  of  design  even  in  the  structure  of 
organisms  so  minute  and  simple  as  these.  But  if 
they  were  all  of  one  form,  and  that  the  most  simple 
which  can  be  found  among  them,  we  should  still 
recognise  in  their  very  existence  an  evidence  of 
wise  design  in  the  adjustments  of  the  different 
ranks  of  the  animal  kingdom.  They  confessedly 
stand  at  the  lowest  step  of  sensitive  life.  They  have 
wonderful  powers  of  multiplication.  They  or  their 
germs  may  even  float  in  the  air,  so  that  multitudes 
are  ready  to  spring  into  existence  wherever  the 
proper  conditions  of  their  life  can  be  found.  And 
if  we   believed,  with   some,  in  their   spontaneous 


Radiate  Animals.  83 

generation,  we  should  still  consider  their  perfect 
adaptation  in  the  scale  of  organic  beings  as  evidence 
of  design.  Many  of  them  are  so  minute  that  they 
can  feed  upon  nothing  but  organic  solutions  or  the 
finest  forms  of  organic  matter  just  ready  to  decom- 
pose and  pass  into  inorganic  gases.  They  thus 
stand  ever  between  the  organic  and  inorganic 
world,  the  lowest  scavengers  of  nature,  to  live  upon 
its  organic  particles,  while  they  themselves  be- 
come the  food  of  other  larger  and  higher  forms  of 
animal  life,  and  they  of  others,  until  the  mighty 
whale,  the  largest  animal  on  the  globe,  and  man,  the 
highest  in  rank,  both  are  indirectly  indebted  for  a 
portion  of  their  food  to  the  labors  of  these  unseen 
atoms  of  life  that  turn  back  inorganic  matter  into 
higher  channels,  preventing  the  formation  of  poi- 
sons and  ministering  to  the  wants  of  higher  beings. 

Rising  one  step  higher,  we  have  the  great  divi- 
sion of  radiate  animals,  the  builders  of  coral  domes 
and  islands — the  soft  jelly-fishes  and  the  starfish 
tribe.  This  group  alone  will  furnish  material  for 
study  for  ages  to  come,  but  enough  is  now  known 
of  its  general  adaptations  to  excite  the  wonder  of 
every  naturalist. 

One  little  body  floating  through  the  water  fastens 
on  some  solid  substance,  and  straightway,  by  the  very 
law  of  its  growth,  a  coral  tree  or  coral  dome  begins 
to  rise.  He  divides  and  subdivides  or  buds  till  the 
community  numbers  thousands.  And  to  each  kind 
is  given  a  distinct  formr  And  these  forms  so  mingle 
together  that  coral  reefs  rise  above  the  ocean  and 


84  Natural  Theology. 

become  islands  for  the  abode  of  man.  These  little 
animals,  of  varied  form  and  of  varied  nature,  are  all 
fitted  to  some  condition  of  the  ocean.  The  waters 
bring:  them  theii  food  and  the  materials  of  which 
their  reefs  and  islands  are  formed.  Amidst  the  con- 
stant rolling  waves  they  find  their  appropriate  home. 
They  have  power  to  gather  their  food  from  the  clear 
waters,  and,  by  the  very  law  of  their  growth,  to 
chisel  from  the  overburdened  sea  the  invisible 
blocks  of  which  their  Titanic  masonry  is  composed. 
What  infinite  skill  was  required  to  adjust  all  these 
kinds  to  their  appropriate  places,  and  to  fit  them  for 
their  appointed  work ! 

Nearly  allied  to  the  coral  builders  are  the  jelly- 
fishes,  many  of  them  apparently  but  little  more  than 
vitalized  water.  But  among  them  we  find  the  same 
perfection  of  adaptation.  One  floats  through  the 
water  by  the  gentle  pulsations  of  its  whole  body, 
another  cuts  it  with  hundreds  of  glistening  cilia, 
and  others  still  float  by  air-sacs  and  are  wafted  by 
the  winds.  Each  has  its  own  habits  of  life,  and 
each  has  a  structure  and  mode  of  locomotion  fitted 
to  its  wants.  The  means  are  entirely  different,  but 
they  in  each  case  secure  the  end  in  scuh  a  manner  as 
meets  our  approbation.  We  feel  that  all  the  adjust- 
ments are  complete,  that  the  animal  has  been  per- 
fectly provided  for. 

The  starfish  tribe  would  at  first  sight,  seem  to  be 
most  helpless.  But  one  who  has  seen  the  Echinus 
climbing  smooth  rocky  walls  with  his  delicate  sucker 
feet,  or  the  starfish  folded  around  the  oyster  or  mus- 


Mo  Husks.  85 

sel,  which,  notwithstanding  their  stony  shells,  fall  an 
easy  prey  to  him,  will  never  cease  to  wonder  at  the 
adaptations  of  means  to  ends  among  these  apparently 
unfortunate  and  imperfect  members  of  the  animal 
kingdom.  Each  member  of  this  group  might  be 
selected  as  a  special  study  and  important  link  in 
our  proof;  but  it  is  enough  for  our  present  purpose 
to  see  that  here  there  has  been  no  less  care  and  no 
less  wisdom  manifested  in  creation  than  among  the 
higher  tribes. 

The  next  grand  division  in  the  animal  kingdom  is 
the  mollusk  or  shell-fish.  The  most  careless  obser- 
ver is  struck  with  the  variety  and  beauty  in  color, 
form,  and  finish,  exhibited  in  a  cabinet  of  shells. 
But  the  shells,  beautiful  as  they  are,  and  full  of 
instruction  as  they  are  to  the  careful  observer,  are 
still  but  the  mere  outward  coverings,  and  are  no 
more  to  be  compared  with  the  animals  that  secreted 
them  than  the  case  of  a  watch  is  to  the  perfect  com- 
bination of  wheels  and  springs  which  it  incloses. 
We  are  almost  necessarily  compelled  here  to  depart 
somewhat  from  our  prescribed  course,  for  it  is  by  a 
multitude  of  special  adaptations  that  this  grand 
division  is  fitted  for  the  varied  condition  and  mode 
of  life  so  noticeable  among  its  different  members. 
What  different  forms  of  shells  may  be  found  upon  a 
single  beach  ;  and  for  every  form  of  shell  there  is  a 
distinct  animal  structure  and  mode  of  life  !  But  for 
each  one  shall  be  found  as  perfect  adaptation  in  its 
structure  and  instincts,  as  though  that  were  the 
only  shell-fish  in  existence.     They  may  be  so  unlike, 


36  Natural  Theology. 

that  one  form  shall  not  even  suggest  another  to  us  ; 
but  when  each  one  is  presented,  it  perfectly  com- 
mends itself  to  our  judgment  in  all  its  relations. 
The  pinna  was  made  for  the  waves,  and  her  wide, 
thin  shells  would  seem  to  be  the  sport  of  the  waters. 
But  she  spins  long  silken  cords,  beautiful  and  strong, 
and  with  these  glossy  cables  anchors  herself  securely. 
The  saxicavas  bore  into  the  corals  and  solid  rocks 
to  form  a  secure  resting-place.  The  myas  and  kin- 
dred tribes  bury  themselves  in  sand.  The  pearly 
nautilus  finds  water-tight  compartments  built  in  his 
tiny  vessel  by  the  very  law  of  his  growth.  Before 
the  Argonauts  sailed,  or  the  ark  floated  upon  the 
waters,  this  modern  invention  of  ship-building  was 
freely  used  in  adapting  shells  to  the  wants  of  their 
occupants. 

Another  group,  not  less  remarkable  for  complex- 
ity of  relation,  are  the  articulates.  The  earth-worm 
that  gropes  in  the  soil,  the  crustacean  of  the  waters, 
and  the  countless  host  of  insects,  make  up  this 
grand  division  of  the  animal  kingdom.  The  earth- 
worm is  perfectly  fitted  for  his  mode  of  life.  His 
brothers,  made  to  inhabit  the  ocean,  are  perfectly 
adapted  to  that  place.  Some  move  freely,  well  pro- 
vided with  organs  of  locomotion,  while  others  secrete 
for  their  protection  a  solid  tube  of  lime,  exposing 
only  those  organs  used  in  securing  food  and  purify- 
ing the  blood.  The  study  of  each  one  of  these  low 
forms  of  life  shows  a  distinct  but  beautiful  adapta- 
tion of  means  to  ends  ;  a  perfect  provision  for  these 
humble   beings.      The    crustaceans   are   the   most 


Articulates.  87 

active  scavengers  of  the  ocean.  They  show  wis- 
dom and  skill  indeed  in  the  perfect  joints  and  varied 
arrangements  of  the  shelly  armor  with  which  they 
are  clothed  ;  but  we  recognise  a  higher  purpose  and 
more  comprehensive  relation  in  the  work  they  were 
appointed  to  accomplish — the  purification  of  the 
waters  by  the  swift  destruction  of  all  decaying  ani- 
mal substances  found  in  them.  They  have  been 
aptly  called  the  insects  of  the  ocean. . 

Among  the  insects  proper  we  have  another 
exhaustless  list  of  special  adaptations.  But  one  who 
had  never  studied  their  structure  or  instincts  for  a 
single  day,  could  not  fail  to  recognise  their  general 
adaptation  to  the  world.  It  is  thrust  constantly 
upon  the  attention  of  the  most  careless  observer. 
He  may  not  know  how  the  thing  is  done,  but  he 
cannot  fail  to  see  that  it  is  done.  Thousands  of 
different  kinds  swarm  around  him  ;  some  making  day, 
and  others  night,  the  time  of  their  activity.  He  may 
regard  many  of  them  as  pests,  but  the  very  fact 
that  they  defy  all  his  schemes  for  their  destruction, 
shows  that  they  are  provided  for  by  nature  ;  and 
so  provided  for,  that  the  combined  efforts  of  all 
the  men  in  the  world  could  not  extirpate  a  single 
insect  species.  Some  live  in  water,  some  on 
land  ;  some  fly  by  day,  some  by  night,  and  some 
never  fly  at  all.  Some  feed  upon  the  honey  of 
flowers,  some  upon  the  vilest  refuse  of  the  sham- 
bles ;  some  upon  living  plants,  others  only  upon 
dead,  woody  fibre.  More  than  a  hundred  thousand 
different  kinds  are  known.     In  this  vast  multitude 


88  Natural  Theology. 

of  species,  what  varied  forms  and  natures,  what 
varied  instincts  and  relations  to  other  beings  ;  and 
yet  each  general  and  special  adaptation  is  perfect  in 
harmonizing  all  their  wants  with  the  structure,  the 
instincts,  and  relations  of  this  vast  host. 

The  highest  type,  and  that  which  foreshadowed 
man  when  it  first  appeared  upon  the  earth,  are  the 
vertebrates.  It  embraces  the  fishes,  the  reptiles, 
the  birds,  and  mammals.  These  higher  forms  of 
life  are  well  known,  and  each  type  suggests  great 
beauty  of  adaptation.  What  is  more  perfect  in  its 
kind  than  a  fish — the  salmon,  or  the  shark  !  What 
architect  or  artist  would  have  the  presumption  to 
suggest  a  better  model!  How  form  and  fin  are 
fitted  for  the  element  in  which  the  animal  is  to  live  ! 
The  feathery  gills  float  in  the  water  and  sweep  out 
oxygen  to  purify  the  blood.  The  eye  is  fitted  to 
light  coming  through  the  water.  And  correspond- 
ing to  every  varied  instinct,  there  is  change  of  form 
to  perfect  the  adaptation. 

The  loathsome  reptile  is  not  less  perfect  in  his 
kind,  though  to  us  often  an  object  of  abhorrence. 

The  snake,  without  feet,  darts  like  an  arrow,  and 
crushes  his  prey  by  tightening  folds.  And  most  of 
the  reptilian  tribe,  unable  to  supply  their  wants  in 
winter,  bury  themselves  in  dens  or  mud,  and  nature 
kindly  puts  her  benumbing  hand  upon  them,  and 
reduces  or  suspends  the  vital  action  till  the  return- 
ing spring  gives  them  another  scene  of  activity. 

In  the  birds,  we  have  an  entirely  distinct  type, 
but  how  perfect  in  its  kind  !     Aside  from  the  gene- 


Birds — Mammals.  89 

ral  adaptation  by  which  the  bird  occupies  a  distinct 
place  in  the  animal  kingdom,  there  are  numberless 
special  adaptations  apparent  here,  by  which  every 
species  is  fitted  for  its  peculiar  condition  of  life. 
The  form  of  the  bird  is  as  perfect  for  the  air  as  that 
of  the  fish  is  for  the  water. 

Its  bones  are  hollow,  to  give  it  lightness.  Its 
lung  capacity  is  increased  to  meet  the  great  draft 
made  upon  its  powers  in  flying.  To  give  it  strength 
of  flight,  the  muscles  are  thickened  and  strengthen- 
ed, absolutely  piled  up,  around  the  base  of  the 
wing.  Need  I  speak  of  the  fine  adjustment  of 
every  feather,  the  eagle's  eye,  and  the  varied  form 
of  foot  and  bill  to  meet  the  different  instincts  and 
conditions  of  life  ? 

Among  the  mammals,  we  find  the  highest  forms 
approaching  man  in  perfection,  and  therefore  pre- 
senting those  general  adaptations  which  we  have 
already  considered  when  treating  of  him.  But 
there  are  curious  forms  and  varied  conditions  of 
life  which  demand  relations  entirely  distinct  from 
those  found  in  man.  The  mole  is  made  to  pierce 
the  earth,  the  whale  to  sport  in  the  waters,  the 
elephant  for  the  jungles  of  the  torrid  zone,  the  white 
bear  for  the  icebergs  of  the  polar  seas  ; — each  one 
is  fitted  by  instinct,  power  of  endurance,  and  struc- 
ture, for  the  place  he  is  to  occupy. 

The  otter  is  fitted  for  both  land  and  water,  and 
has  a  coat  that  the  water  never  penetrates.  The 
seal  has  no  protection  against  the  water  from  his 
fur  ;  but  he  and  the  whale  are  both  clothed  with  a 


90  Natural  Theology. 

thick  layer  of  blubber  beneath  the  skin,  giving  pro- 
tection from  the  cold  and  buoyancy  in  the  waters. 
This  burden  of  fat,  which  would  weigh  down  a  land 
animal,  is  a  float  to  one  moving  only  in  the  ocean. 

Thus  we  find  one  animal  perfectly  fitted  for  bur- 
rowing in  the  earth,  and  he  comes  out  smooth  and 
unsoiled  as  does  the  mole  from  the  sand  and  dirt. 
One  delights  in  heat,  another  can  endure  nothing 
warmer  than  icy  water  or  the  iceberg  itself.  The 
walrus  and  seal,  the  whale,  the  polar  bear  and  rein- 
deer, all  find  a  home  in  the  icy  north,  and  each  has 
a  mode  of  life  and  structure  peculiar  to  itself.  But 
the  form,  the  organic  structure,  the  food,  the  adapta- 
tion to  climate,  and  the  instincts,  all  harmonize. 
Each  animal  is  a  study  by  itself ;  each  one  is  won- 
derful in  the  harmony  of  its  relations  to  the  world. 

Not  only  are  animals  fitted  for  every  zone,  but  by 
their  organic  structure  or  functional  change  they 
are  fitted  for  the  change  of  seasons.  As  winter 
approaches,  Nature  thickens  the  coating  of  fur ;  and 
when  spring  returns,  she  plucks  out  the  surplus 
coating  to  fit  them  for  the  summer  months.  For 
those  animals,  like  the  bat,  the  marmot,  and  the 
bear,  whose  food  fails  in  the  winter,  Nature  pro- 
vides as  for  the  reptiles  already  mentioned.  They 
enter  their  dens  as  winter  approaches,  and  a  deep 
sleep  falls  upon  them  ;  a  sleep  by  which  the  vital 
action  is  changed.  The  circulation  becomes  slow, 
the  temperature  of  the  body  lowered,  and  the  ani- 
mal, with  its  vitality  reduced  to  the  lowest  point, 
lives  upon  its  own  fat  till  spring  calls  him  forth 


Hibernation.  9 1 

again  to  new  supplies  of  food  and  new  enjoyments. 
Without  this  provision  these  animals  would  perish 
in  a  single  winter,  and  the  species  become  extinct. 
But  Nature  has  not  left  them  unprovided  for. 
Their  vitality  is  like  a  burning  lamp.  In  winter  the 
wick  is  turned  down  so  that  the  spark  of  life  may 
remain,  and  that  is  all.  This  hibernation  is  no 
ordinary  sleep  ;  it  is  peculiar,  and  it  is  something 
over  which  the  animal  has  no  more  control  than  he 
has  over  the  change  of  seasons. 

In  these  general  adaptations,  we  must  not  forget 
the  relationship  of  these  animals  to  the  length  of 
the  year.  Were  the  winter  essentially  longer  than 
it  now  is,  these  hibernating  animals  could  not  sur- 
vive, excepting  those  rendered  quite  torpid  like 
some  of  the  reptiles.  Those  animals  that  lay  up 
stores  of  food  for  winter  would  find  themselves  in 
want.  The  thickening  of  the  coat  and  its  loss  are 
not  the  effect  of  cold  and  heat,  but  a  change  in  the 
system  whose  machinery  has  been  adjusted  to  the 
clock-work  of  the  stars. 

We  come  now  to  speak  of  a  new  principle  of 
adaptation  which  has  been  only  incidentally  re- 
ferred to.  Thus  far,  we  have  spoken  mainly  of 
fixed  relations  ;  those  growing  out  of  form,  anatomi- 
cal differences,  and  functional  peculiarities.  In 
regard  to  all  these,  the  animal  is  like  a  plant,  plas- 
tic in  the  hands  of  Nature  and  entirely  passive. 
He  is  thrown  into  the  world  with  a  certain  struc- 
ture externally  and  internally,  and  to  this  structure 
he  must    conform    in    some   measure,    necessarily 


92  Natural  Theology. 

The  mole  cannot  pursue  insects  in  the  air,  nor  the 
whale  seek  his  food  upon  the  land.  The  structure 
of  both  determines  where  they  must  live.  But  in 
addition  to  the  peculiar  structure  and  functions  of 
each  animal,  by  which,  like  a  plant,  he  is  fitted  to 
the  world,  there  is  given  to  each  one  an  instinct  in 
harmony  always  with  his  structure,  by  which  he 
becomes  an  active  thinking  agent,  and  thus  volun- 
tarily adapts  himself  more  perfectly  to  the  world. 
Instinct  simply  supplements  structure  and  func- 
tions, putting  them  to  the  best  use,  and  making  a 
higher  type  of  life  possible  than  could  be  manifested 
by  structure  and  function  alone.  The  bee  has  a 
structure  fitting  it  for  gathering  honey,  and  the 
rings  of  the  body  have  the  function  of  secreting 
wax.  Instinct  is  needed  to  impel  the  bee  to  gather 
the  honey,  and  to  form  the  scales  of  wax  into  the 
honey-comb.  And  it  is  impossible  to  conceive  of 
any  complexity  of  structure  in  the  bee,  or  perfection 
of  function  by  which  the  varied  results  of  the  bee- 
hive could  be  secured.  But  instinct,  utilizing  the 
structure  and  function,  exactly  harmonizing  with 
them,  secures  perfect  results — most  admirable  adap- 
tations. 

We  wish  now  to  inquire  more  fully  what  this 
instinct  is,  and  how  far  it  is  proof  of  design  in  the 
creation  of  these  animals.  We  have  no  intention 
of  completing  the  subject  here,  for  we  must  refer  to 
instinct  again,  in  treating  of  special  adaptations  and 
the  mutual  relations  of  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms  to  each  other. 


Instinct.  93 

Instinct  may  be  defined  to  be  that  principle  of 
action  implanted  in  the  animal  by  which  he  provides 
for  himself,  and  the  continuance  of  the  species.  It 
controls  the  animal.  He  acts  under  its  guidance 
always  in  a  uniform  manner  under  the  same  condi- 
tions, and  without  instruction.  If  there  comes  to 
be  any  variation  or  apparent  change  in  this  instinct, 
it  is  for  a  specific  purpose  ;  and  the  change  or  modi- 
fication of  instinct  is  as  much  under  law  as  the 
change  in  form  and  structure  by  which  new  varieties 
are  originated  from  the  same  species.  It  is  this 
uniformity  of  instinct  that  gives  uniformity  of  action 
to  the  same  species  of  animals  all  over  the  world. 
It  determines  what  the  animal  shall  be  as  a  sentient, 
voluntary  agent.  This  description  might  be  enlarg- 
ed, but  I  am  inclined  to  think  it  covers  instinct 
proper. 

Although  it  is  difficult  to  draw  the  dividing  line, 
we  must  recognise  in  some  animals  an  intelligence 
distinct  from  instinct,  and  higher  ;  an  intelligence 
by  which  they  enter  into  certain  relations  to  man, 
comprehend  his  wishes,  understand  his  commands, 
and  form  attachments  to  him.  They  must  have  a 
degree  of  intelligence  to  understand  so  fully  as  some 
of  them  do  intelligent  man.  If  any  choose  to  say 
that  we  have  here  simply  higher  manifestations  of 
instinct,  then  we  must  enlarge  our  definition  ;  for 
many  things  comprehended  and  done  by  domesti- 
cated animals  are  neither  necessary  for  their  own 
existence,  nor  for  the  continuance  of  the  species. 
When  the  watch-dog  guards  his  master's  treasure,  it 


94  Natural  Theology. 

is  for  man  and  not  for  himself  that   the  work  is 
done. 

There  is  in  all  animals  an  organic  or  vegetable 
life,  which  they  have  in  common  with  the  plants. 
In  the  lowest  forms  of  animal  life  we  can  hardly 
recognise  anything  higher  than  this  organic  and 
functional  action.  There  is  certainly  but  the  mere 
glimmering  of  instinct  needed,  because  in  the- lowest 
types  structure  and  function  can  complete  the  adap- 
tation of  the  animal  to  the  world  without  the  inter- 
vention of  volition.  What  needs  the  oyster  more 
than  the  plant  ?  So  far  as  we  can  judge,  it  has  no 
more  conscious  relation  to  its  young  than  the  tree 
has  to  its  seed.  The  production  of  its  young  is 
simply  the  result  of  organic  change,  the  law  of  its 
growth,  like  the  budding  and  blossoming  of  the  tree. 
The  movement  of  the  shell  seems  to  be  voluntary. 
Certain  it  is  that  volition  is  reduced  to  its  minimum, 
and  consequently  instinct,  since  instinct  is  always 
connected  with  volition.  We  must,  then,  in  animals 
of  such  low  type,  recognise  mainly  adaptation  of 
structure  and  function.  But,  one  step  higher  in  this 
division  of  animals,  we  see  marked  cases  of  the  rela- 
tion of  instinct  to  specific  structure — the  absolute 
necessity  of  the  combination  of  the  two  to  secure 
the  well-being  of  the  animal.  The  Natica,  a  shell- 
fish found  on  our  coast,  can  hunt  his  prey  in  the 
sand.  He  feeds  upon  other  shell-fish,  sometimes 
upon  his  own  kind.  He  is  armed  with  a  long,  rasp- 
like tongue,  and  instinct  teaches  him  to  use  it,  in 
piercing   the   shell   that  is  closed   in  vain  against 


Provision  for  the   Young.  95 

him.  Without  this  instrument  he  would  be  power- 
less ;  with  it  he  would  be  just  as  powerless  without 
the  instinct  to  use  it  as  he  does.  But  the  instru- 
ment and  the  instinct  combined  constitute  an  im- 
portant adaptation  of  the  animal  to  the  .world. 
They  are  evidently  as  much  the  parts  of  the  same 
plan  as  are  the  different  organs  by  which  the  vital 
processes  are  carried  on. 

It  is  only  when  we  come  to  those  animals  where 
provision  for  their  young'calls  instinct  into  play,,  that 
it  becomes  most  marked  ;  though  in  many  cases  we 
are  compelled  to  believe  that  the  acts  of  the  parent 
in  providing  for  its  young  are  no  more  understood 
by  that  parent  as  having  relation  to  its  young,  than 
the  tree  consciously  provides  for  its  flower  when  it 
folds  it  in  the  bud.  Certain  acts  were  needed  to 
carry  out  fully  what  organs  and  functions  commenced 
but  could  not  complete.  A  blind  impulse  is  upon 
the  animal  to  perform  those  needed  acts.  And  that 
impulse  we  call  instinct ;  an  impulse  of  a  voluntary 
agent  indeed,  but  an  impulse  so  strong  that  it 
becomes  like  a  wheel  in  machinery,  which  is  so  im- 
portant that  it  makes  the  machine  what  it  is,  and 
without  it  all  would  fail.  There  is,  on  the  part  of 
the  animal,  will  to  do  the  act ;  but,  so  far  as  we  can 
see,  no  desire  to  refrain  from  doing,  and  oftentimes 
no  more  knowledge  why  the  thing  is  done,  than 
there  is  in  the  flower  when  it  bends  itself  towards  the 
light.  What  knows  the  cicada,  the  so-called  seven- 
teen-year locust,  that  has  burrowed  as  a  grub  in  the 
earth  for  half  a  human  generation,  when  it  comes 


g6  Natural  Theology. 

forth  to  deposit  its  egg  in  the  limb  of  the  oak,  that 
in  due  time,  after  her  own  death,  her  young  will  find 
their  resting-place  in  the  earth  ?  She  obeys  a  blind 
impulse.  The  limb  is  pierced  and  the  egg  deposited. 
She  has  by  instinct  made  use  of  both  structure  and 
function  of  organs,  and  thus  completed  her  adapta- 
tion to  the  world  in  preserving  the  species.  This  is 
only  one  instance  from  a  great  number  in  which  the 
parent  never  sees  its  young,  and  never  can  see  them, 
and  yet  provides  completely  for  them. 

And  the  young  cicadas  that  hatch  from  those  eggs 
after  their  parents  have  perished  and  disappeared, 
find  their  way  to  the  earth,  and  there,  under  the 
guidance  of  this  instinct,  provide  for  themselves ; 
Nature  taking  care  that  the  development  of  all  the 
thousands  shall  progress  so  uniformly,  that  when 
seventeen  years  have  passed  away,  on  a  given 
day  they  are  all  ready  to  come  forth  for  their  few 
gala-days  of  life.  As  they  come  forth  only  at  the 
end  of  seventeen  years,  and  then  live  only  a  few 
days,  it  is  necessary  for  the  preservation  of  the 
species  that  they  should  all  come  forth  at  the  same 
time.  They  are  like  ten  thousand  chronometers  all 
set  to  run  seventeen  years,  and  all  the  changes  in 
form  are  accompanied  by  change  in  instinct,  so  that 
when  the  years  have  revolved,  structure  and  instinct 
have  completed  their  work,  and  the  ten  thousand 
chronometers  are  all  found  in  perfect  adjustment. 

The  tent-moth  also  lays  her  eggs  upon  the  apple- 
twig,  closely  packed  and  varnished  to  protect  them 
till  the  warmth  of  spring  wakes  the  young  to  life, 


Tent-Moth — Fishes. 


97 


when  the  new  leaf  is  ready  for  their  food.  But  the 
mother  dies  when  her  instinct  has  completed  the 
relations  by  which  the  species  is  to  be  continued. 
While  forests  of  trees  invited  her  by  their  slender 
twigs,  on  no  tree  did  she  put  an  egg  that  would  not 
the  next  spring  put  forth  a  leaf  fitted  for  the  food 
of  her  young. 

Many  fishes  make  long  journeys  to  deposit  their 
eggs  in  places  fitted  for  their  progeny  ;  and  when 
that  work  is  done,  parental  solicitude  ceases.  The 
parent  returns  to  the  ocean,  and  the  young  fish, 
when  hatched  and  grown  to  the  proper  size,  knows 
the  way  to  the  great  deep  as  well  as  though  its  pa- 
rent had  remained  to  act  as  guide.  Nay  more,  it 
knows  when  and  where  to  go,  as  by  a  divine  know- 
ledge. The  thousands  that  go  out  for  the  first  time 
find  their  feeding-grounds,  and  never  forget  to  return 
when  the  time  comes  for  them  to  deposit  their  spawn. 
Some  species  seek  the  cold,  and  some  the  warm 
waters.  Some  seek  the  fresh  streams,  and  some  the 
salt  ocean  ;  each  one  seeks  the  proper  condition  for 
its  young,  which  it  is  never  to  see,  and  to  which  it 
probably  has  no  conscious  relation.  The  impulse 
is  upon  it,  and  it  obeys.  It  leaves  its  accustomed 
haunts,  where  would  seem  to  be  the  most  natural 
place  for  breeding,  and  seeks  out  a  far  distant  loca- 
tion to  which  instinct  guides  it.  This  impulse  was 
given  to  complete  its  relation  to  the  world,  and  is 
the  same  evidence  of  design  as  the  form  of  the  fin 
or  the  structure  of  the  gill.  The  wisdom  of  the  de- 
sign and  the  skill  of  the  designer  are  shown  by  the 

5 


98  Natural  Theology. 

perfection  with  which  instinct  supplements  function, 
and  thus  completes  the  adaptation  of  each  species 
to  the  world. 

In  the  bird,  instinct  goes  further  still ;  and  in  every 
case  there  finally  comes  to  be  a  conscious  relation 
of  the  parent  to  the  young.  It  hardly  seems  possi- 
ble that  all  the  acts  that  relate  to  the  young  are 
performed  with  a  consciousness  of  the  coming  pa- 
rental relation.  Undoubtedly  the  migration  of  the 
bird  is  as  much  a  matter  of  blind  impulse  as  the  mi- 
gration of  the  fish.  We  judge  so  because  we  see 
the  bird  following  such  a  uniform  line  of  action  in 
other  respects.  In  certain  things,  birds  of  the  same 
species  act  under  the  guidance  of  instinct  with  as 
great  uniformity  as  the  same  species  of  trees  in  the 
arrangement  of  their  leaves,  or  the  pattern  of  their 
flower.  So  that  while  the  act  is  truly  voluntary,  it 
is  as  certain  to  take  place  under  similar  conditions 
as  any  organic  change  in  a  plant,  and  the  act  is  per- 
formed by  a  wisdom  and  skill  given,  and  not  acquir- 
ed. The  bird  that  has  never  seen  a  nest  will  build 
one  as  all  its  kind  have  done  before,  selecting  the 
same  class  of  materials  and  combining  them  in  the 
same  manner.  If  there  is  any  conscious  relation  to 
the  young  that  should  lead  to  the  preparation  of  the 
nest,  how  can  we  account  for  that  impulse  that  thus, 
without  instruction,  induces  every  bird  of  the  same 
species  to  build  of  the  same  materials,  to  select 
similar  situations,  and  to  weave  those  materials  in 
the  same  manner  ?  A  hundred  different  species  of 
birds  of  the  same  size,  and,  so  far  as  we  could  judge 


Instinct  of  Birds.  99 

beforehand,  equally  well  accommodated  with  the  same 
kind  of  nest,  will  build  a  hundred  kinds  ;  but  a  thou- 
sand birds  of  the  same  kind,  without  concert,  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  world,  some  old,  having  built 
many  nests,  some  young,  now  building  for  the  first 
time,  all  without  instruction,  build  exactly  alike — the 
young  as  skilfully  as  the  old.  What  but  a  divine 
wisdom  and  skill  guides  the  architects  of  the  air  ? 
The  bird  that  has  never  before  seen  an  egg,  sits 
upon  the  nest  until  the  young  birds  appear.  What 
tells  her  that  in  that  egg  is  a  germ  of  life  that  the 
warmth  of  her  body  will  wake  to  activity  ?  Up  to 
this  point  we  cannot  but  regard  all  her  actions  as 
blind,  and  unconscious  of  their  end,  as  the  act  of  the 
fish  and  the  insect  that  are  never  to  see  their  young. 
As  she  works  perfectly  to  secure  an  end,  and  is  yet 
entirely  ignorant  of  that  end  while  she  works,  she 
must  be  under  the  guidance  of  a  wisdom  not  her 
own.  Nor  does  it  alter  the  question  whether  that 
wisdom  be  the  result  of  an  impulse  constantly  im- 
parted to  her,  or  the  certain,  uniform  result  of  her 
organization.  But  when  the  young  bird  appears,  it 
needs  in  its  helpless  state  a  parent's  care,  and  the 
instinct  of  the  parent  becomes  quickened  and  rises 
to  a  higher  plane  by  a  conscious  relation,  while  the 
almost  unconscious  instinct  of  the  young  instantly 
responds  to  this  higher  instinct  of  the  parent.  The 
mother  brings  food,  and  every  bill  in  the  nest  is 
raised  and  opened  to  receive  it.  The  old  partridge 
flutters  like  a  wounded  bird  in  your  path  to  attract 
attention,  and  gives  the  note  of  warning,  at  which 


IOO  Natural  Theology. 

every  one  of  the  brood  vanishes  as  though  the  earth 
had  swallowed  them.  Every  fowl  knows  the  hawk 
to  be  an  enemy  as  far  as  he  can  be  seen,  though 
seen  now  for  the  first  time. 

In  the  large  majority  of  these  cases,  and  in  others 
that  might  be  mentioned,  it  is  impossible  to  refer 
the  act  of  these  animals  to  previous  instruction,  to 
experience,  or  to  conscious  relation.  The  impulse  is 
upon  them  ;  they  act,  they  know  not  why.  We  see 
that  those  acts  are  for  the  actors  the  perfection  of 
wisdom.  We  know  the  wisdom  is  not  in  them. 
It  must  be  in  Him  who  implanted  the  impulse. 

Among  mammals,  of  course  excluding  man,  we 
find  instinct  taking  a  still  wider  range.  It  does  not 
work  with  that  almost  mathematical  precision  seen 
in  the  bee  and  other  lower  animals  ;  but  while  the 
animal  remains  in  a  wild  state,  it  is  so  perfect  and 
uniform  in  its  action  that  every  species  is  distin- 
guished for  the  same  habits,  and  every  individual  of 
the  species  under  its  direction  seeks  the  same  end 
for  himself,  and  seeks  it  in  the  same  way.  The  bea- 
ver, the  otter,  the  fox  and  the  marmot,  the  lion  and 
the  whale,  remain  essentially  unchanged  in  their 
natures  and  uniform  in  their  modes  of  life  from  gen- 
eration to  generation.  The  wider  range  of  then 
instinct  is  seen  when  they  are  brought  into  new  re- 
lations. They  are  then  found  to  have  greater  vari- 
ety in  their  adaptation  than  the  lower  tribes.  In 
many  of  them,  there  seems  indeed  to  be  an  intelli- 
gence quite  distinct  from  instinct,  which  is  called 
out  especially  when  they  are  brought  into  constant 


HigJier  Instinct.  101 

conflict  with  man,  or  when  they  are  subjected  to  his 
control  and  act  under  his  direction. 

But  this  instinct  in  the  higher  animals  may  itself 
take  so  wide  a  range  as  to  be  mistaken  for  intelli- 
gence by  the  casual  observer,  though  just  as  distinct 
from  it  as  the  blindest  instinct  of  the  lowest  tribes. 
The  muskrat  burrows  in  high  banks  along  the  rivers, 
and  one  who  had  seen  him  only  in  such  places  would 
suppose  this  to  be  his  only  mode  of  life.  But  if  he 
cannot  find  banks,  then  he  builds  a  house  of  mud 
and  weeds  in  the  open  air,  upon  some  stump  or 
knoll,  or  shallow  place  in  the  water.  This  house, 
seen  for  the  first  time,  would  strike  an  observer, 
who  had  seen  this  animal  before  only  among  the 
steep  banks  of  rivers,  as  the  work  of  no  mean  intel- 
ligence, adapting  itself  to  new  conditions.  But 
that  house  is  built  on  a  specific  plan,  and  is  just 
such  in  all  particulars  as  all  muskrats  would  build 
in  any  part  of  the  world,  when  shut  out  for  the  first 
time  from  the  high  banks  in  which  they  had  been 
accustomed  to  burrow.  That  house  is  then  the 
work  of  instinct ;  an  instinct  that  certainly  covers 
two  modes  of  building,  and  perhaps  others.  The 
same  thing  is  undoubtedly  true  of  many  animals. 
Their  instinct  is  not  entirely  exhausted  in  its 
resources  by  their  present  condition  in  life  ;  and 
thus,  when  thrown  into  new  conditions,  they  often 
meet  them  in  a  manner  surprising  to  us.  And 
therefore  we  hear  of  change  of  instinct,  or  the 
development  of  new  instincts.  But  if  the  animals 
are  sure  always  to  meet  these  new  conditions  in  the 


£02  Natural  Theology. 

same  way,  they  plainly  act  under  the  guidance  of 
instinct ;  for  intelligence  acts  in  no  such  fixed  direc- 
tions. 

Among  these  higher  tribes,  then,  we  find  all 
that  is  needed  for  the  animal's  good,  for  the  indivi- 
dual or  for  the  species.  In  the  youngest,  it  is  suffi- 
cient for  its  wants,  because  it  is  supplemented  by 
the  instinct  of  the  parent.  It  is  simply  more  varied 
in  these  higher  tribes  because  their  relations  to  the 
world  are  more  varied.  And  if,  in  some  animals, 
we  recognise  intelligence,  we  always  find  it  subor- 
dinate to  instinct,  so  as  to  work  in  the  same  line 
for  the  animal's  good  ;  so  that  instinct,  and  not 
intelligence,  controls  the  animal.  In  every  kind, 
from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  we  find  the  thinking 
being  just  high  enough  in  its  mental  powers  to 
inhabit  the  body  in  which  it  is  placed,  with  mind 
enough  to  use  that  body.  Mind  and  body  are  both 
fitted  to  each  other,  and  both  work  together  in  per- 
fect relation  to  the  world.  They  are  parts  of  one 
comprehensive  plan,  perfect  in  its  conception  and 
execution  ;  a  plan  that  commends  itself  to  the  wis- 
dom of  man,  so  far  as  he  can  comprehend  it,  but 
higher,  vaster,  and  more  perfect  than  he  could  him- 
self devise. 


LECTURE  IV. 

SPECIAL  CONTRIVANCES PRESERVATION  OF  SPECIES. 

Special  adaptations.— Functions.— Cases  mentioned  by  Paley. 
—Ball  and  socket  joint.— Cuttle-fish. — Terebratulas. — 
Leech.— Gnats.— Bees.— Spiders.—  Variation  of  substance 
according  to  their  instinct. — Silk-worm. — Lobsters  and 
Crabs.— Rattlesnake.  —  Birds.  —  Fitted  for  flight.  —  Oil 
gland— Structure  of  birds  of  prey. —  Water  birds. — Form 
of  bills.— Grebe  and  Loon. —  Waders. —  Woodpeckers.— De- 
velopment from  use  considei-ed. — Homologous  structure. — 
Limbs  of  animals.— Teeth.— Whales  and  Rays.— Crop  of 
birds.— Preservation  of  species. — Definition  of— Multipli- 
city of  germs.— Distribution  of  seeds. — Springs,  balloons, 
hooks,  barbs.  —  Same  end  secured  by  diverse  means. — 
Vitality  of  seeds. — Fe?  tilization  of  flowers. — Growth  of 
plants  supplementing  instinct.—  Carnivorous  animals  lim- 
ited in  number. — Destruction  of  animals  provided  for. — 
Suffering  and  death.— Goodness  of  Deity  to  be  vindicated. 
— Man's  enjoyment  and  suffering  on  different  grounds. — 
Present  discussion  confined  to  lower  animals.— Suffering 
never  inflicted  for  its  own  sake.— Enjoyment  in  excess  of 
suffering. — Death  secures  parental  relation. — Sum  of  en- 
joyment increased  by  succession  of  animals. — Introduction 
of  carnivorous  animals  increases  the  sum  of  enjoyment. — 
Disease.— Provision  for  its  alleviation. — Design  may  show 
cruelty. — Apparent  cruelty  often  real  benevolence. — Creator 
Infinite  in  His  attribtites. 

There  seems  to  some  minds  to  be  great  evidence 
of  design  in  special  adaptations.  A  loop,  or  hinge, 
or  lens,  is  easier  understood  than  the  harmonies 
which  embrace  the  relations  of  whole  classes  or 
kingdoms  of  nature.       It  is  in  the  skilful  presenta- 


104  Natural  Theology. 

tion  of  special  adaptations  that  the  excellence  of 
Paley's  Natural  Theology  mainly  consists.  Very 
little  can  be  added  to  the  examples  he  has  selected 
for  illustration.  The  most  of  them  are  still  recog- 
nised as  good,  and  most  of  them  are  so  plain  that 
they  were  as  well  understood  in  his  day  as  now, 
with  all  the  advance  in  science.  We  shall  not,  how- 
ever, confine  ourselves  to  simple  structure  ;  for  the 
function  of  an  organ  may  be  as  special  in  its  adap- 
tation as  structure  possibly  can  be.  Among  the 
strongest  cases  mentioned  by  Paley,  is  the  ligament 
within  the  hip-joint,  fastening  the  ball  and  socket 
firmly  together.  It  is  a  strong  case,  but  this  con- 
trivance did  not  appear  for  the  first  time  in  man, 
nor  is  it  confined  to  the  higher  animals.  Some  of 
the  sea-urchins,  dug  out  of  the  old  geological  forma- 
tions, have  their  spines  fastened  to  them  by  a  ball 
and  socket  joint  of  most  exquisite  workmanship,  and 
a  ligament  to  hold  the  joint  in  place.  This  special 
contrivance  appeared  just  as  soon  as  an  animal  was 
created  whose  general  structure  and  habits  called 
for  it.  It  has  been  continued  from  that  time  to  this, 
and  is  now  found  in  members  of  the  animal  king- 
dom furthest  removed  from  each  other  in  their  organ- 
ization and  rank. 

Among  the  shell-fish,  we  find  almost  every  spe- 
cies with  some  special  adaptation  of  structure  cor- 
responding to  its  instincts  and  mode  of  life.  The 
cuttle-fish  is  a  combination  of  special  adaptations. 
He  has  a  syphon  tube,  through  which  he  forces  a 
jet  of  water,  that,  by  its  reaction,  enables  him  to 


Cuttle-Fisk — Leech.  105 

move  with  great  rapidity.  He  is  also  provided  with 
an  ink-bag,  from  which  he  ejects  a  cloud  of  colored 
fluid,  and  thus  baffles  his  foe  by  the  rapidity  of  his 
backward  motion,  and  the  inky  screen  that  he  raises 
before  him.  His  tentacles  are  lined  with  miniature 
air-pumps,  by  means  of  which  he  fastens  securely 
upon  his  prey.  There  is  the  nicely-fitting  receiver, 
with  its  yielding  edge,  adapting  itself  to  various  sur- 
faces, and  there  is  the  piston  and  the  muscle  to  move 
it.  In  some  species,  a  sharp  claw  rises  from  the 
piston  and  enters  the  victim  by  the  very  action  that 
draws  him  firmly  against  the  suckers  ;  and  the  two 
longest  tentacles,  thus  fastened  upon  their  prey  by 
the  double  action  of  pressure  and  sharpened  claws, 
are  held  firmly  together  by  other  suckers,  like  for- 
ceps by  the  rivet,  so  that  no  instrument  that  man 
could  devise  would  be  so  perfectly  fitted  for  its  pur- 
pose. 

The  silken  cords  by  which  the  pinnas  and 
mussels  anchor  themselves  have  already  been 
described.  The  perforated  shell  of  the  Terebra- 
tula,  through  which  the  fleshy  anchor-cable  is  drawn, 
is  of  similar  character. 

Among  the  articulates,  the  examples  of  special 
adaptation  meet  us  on  every  hand.  No  more  per- 
fect lances  are  found  than  those  that  arm  the  leech 
for  his  bloody  work.  If  we  cannot  see  the  use  of 
all  the  structure  for  the  leech  in  his  common  mode 
of  life,  no  one  who  has  seen  him  fasten  upon  his 
prey  with  his  miniature  cupping-glasses,  make  the 
incision  and  deplete  the  veins,  can  regard  the  whole 

5* 


io6  Natural  Theology. 

animal  other  than  as  a  special  and  most  perfect  in- 
strument for  bloodletting. 

The  voracious  gnat  that  robs  our  veins  does  it 
by  an  instrument  fine  as  a  hair,  but  certainly  won- 
derfully fitted  for  its  work. 

The  proboscis  of  the  bee  is  just  the  instrument 
needed  for  extracting  honey  from  the  flower.  Her 
sting,  with  its  bag  of  poison,  cannot  be  improved 
upon  as  a  means  of  defence. 

The  spinneret  of  the  spider — little  bags  perforat- 
ed with  a  multitude  of  holes — is  perfect  as  an  instru- 
ment ;  and  the  material  from  which  this  delicate 
thread  is  spun,  is  beyond  all  human  power  to 
equal.  With  this  curious  magazine  of  material, 
ever  ready  to  be  drawn  into  silken  cords,  one  species 
suspends  himself  in  air,  swings  from  wall  to  wall, 
and  spreads  his  net  for  his  insect  prey  ;  another 
lines  his  dwelling  with  softest  tissue ;  and  yet  an- 
other fashions  diving-bells  that  defy  the  action  of 
the  water.  The  main  design  of  the  instrument  is 
the  same,  but  the  work  is  varied  according  to  the 
instinct  of  each  species.  The  nature  of  the  sub- 
stance is  somewhat  varied  too,  undoubtedly ;  but 
the  spinneret  and  silk-producing  fluid,  both  adapt- 
ed to  each  other,  appear  in  every  case  a  special 
adaptation  to  the  creature's  wants.  And  when  the 
spider  has  twisted  his  hundreds  of  threads  together, 
man  still  seeks  for  this  cable  for  the  cross-lines  of 
his  telescope,  because  he  can  spin  no  single  thread 
as  fine.  The  silk-worm  is  provided  with  a  similar 
material  from  which  it  spins  its  cocoon,  a  temporary 


Lobster — Rattlesnake — Birds.  1 07 

resting-place  for  itself  while  passing  into  a  higher 
form  of  life.  The  lobster  and  crab  are  provided 
with  a  solid  armor  completely  fitting  all  their  limbs 
and  joints  ;  an  armor  so  solid  that  growth  would 
seem  to  be  impossible.  But  nature  gives  them 
the  power  at  certain  seasons  of  throwing  off  this 
solid  case,  and  after  a  rapid  expansion  of  the  body,  of 
secreting  another  covering  adapted  to  the  increased 
size. 

The  fang  of  the  rattlesnake  is  the  perfection  of 
an  instrument  for  his  cruel  work.  It  is  a  tube,  but 
the  end  is  flattened  upon  one  side  so  as  to  bring  the 
point  to  a  keen  edge  ;  and  the  poison,  ever  ready,  is 
driven  out  by  the  very  blow  that  makes  the  wound. 
This  fang,  so  essential  to  the  animal  to  supplement 
his  instinct,  is  liable  to  be  broken  by  his  savage 
blows ;  but  nature  has  placed  the  germs  of  others  in 
the  same  socket,  to  grow  and  take  the  place  of  the 
one  lost.  His  rattle,  which  gives  the  warning  before 
he  strikes,  is  a  curious  piece  of  mechanism,  not 
made  for  the  animal ;  but  being  so  perfectly  fitted 
for  its  work,  and  so  in  keeping  with  the  instincts  of 
the  animal,  we  cannot  but  regard  this  as  a  special 
provision  that  this  deadly  reptile  might  not  need- 
lessly destroy  life. 

The  whole  bird  tribe  is  a  marvel  of  special  adap- 
tations. The  whole  external  structure,  which  cha- 
racterizes birds,  is  itself  a  special  adaptation  to 
the  external  world  ;  and  when  we  consider  the  means 
by  which  this  perfect  relationship  is  secured, 
we  are    delighted   by  the   skill  manifested   in    the 


io8  Natural  Theology. 

whole  plan,  and  the  perfection  with  which  that  plan 
is  carried  out. 

Flight  is  secured  by  the  most  skilful  mechanism 
of  feathers,  and  the  accumulation  of  muscle  around 
the  shoulder  of  the  bird.  What  can  be  more  per- 
fect in  its  mechanism  than  each  feather  of  the  wing, 
— its  hollow  elastic  shaft  securing  lightness  and 
strength  ?  Then  we  have  the  skilful  joining  of  all 
the  lines  of  the  web,  and  that  combination  of  barbs 
and  hooks  that  has  ever  challenged  the  admiration 
of  men.  The  position  of  all  the  feathers  is  such, 
that  by  expanding  the  wing,  they  cover  the  greatest 
extent  possible  with  no  openings  between  them. 
The  muscles  are  not  only  of  great  strength,  but 
they  are  so  arranged  that  the  wing  strikes  the  air 
at  the  required  angle  to  enable  the  bird  to  rise  and 
completely  control  its  motions.  And  then  observe 
the  compactness  with  which  the  instrument  is  fold- 
ed away  when  not  in  use.  The  great  expenditure 
of  muscular  force  is  provided  for  by  the  great  lung 
capacity,  the  whole  viscera  even  being  bathed  with 
air. 

The  bird  by  instinct  trims  its  feathers,  when  the 
web  has  been  broken ;  and  because  the  feathers  are 
too  long,  and  not  of  a  structure  like  hair,  to  receive 
from  the  body  the  oil  which  they  need  to  preserve 
their  gloss,  nature  has  provided  a  never-failing  bottle 
of  oil  on  the  back  of  the  bird  which  instinct  has 
taught  it  how  to  use. 

In  the  bird  of  prey  we  find  the  sharp,  hooked  bill 
for  tearing  its  victim,  and  sharp  talons  for  seizing 


Water-Birds — Woodpecker.  109 

it  ;  both  perfectly  fitted  for  their  work  and  harmo- 
nizing with  each  other. 

In  water-birds  we  find  the  web  foot  for  swimming, 
and  bills   fitted  for  their  mode  of  life.     The  wide- 
billed  ducks  have   strainers    on    the    sides   of  the 
mouth,   because    they   gather  their  food  from    the 
mud  and  water.      The  narrow-billed  sheldrake  has 
the  sharp  saw-teeth  which  his  instinct  teaches  him 
to  use  in   holding  his   fishy  prey.     In  those  birds 
whose  habits  confine  them  mostly  to  the  water,  like 
the  grebe  or  loon,  the  leg  is  thin  as  a  knife,  that  it 
may  cut  the  water  with  as  little  resistance  as  pos- 
sible, and  each  toe  is  an  oar  of  most  exquisite  con- 
struction.    The  feathers  of  such  birds  are  water- 
proof.     The  waders,  like  the  herons  and  snipes,  are 
provided  with  long  legs   and  long  necks  to  harmo- 
nize with  them  in  pursuit  of  prey  and  in  flying.    The 
feathers   on  the  legs  of  these  waders  do  not  grow 
down  to  the  middle  joint  as  in  other  birds,  but  keep 
out  of  the  way  of  the  water  like  sleeves  well  rolled 
up.     So   perfectly  are  the  bills  of  all  birds  adapted 
to  their  instincts,  that  from  the  bill  alone  the  habits 
of  a  bird  one  had  never  seen  could  be  judged  of 
with  great   accuracy.     The  woodpecker  is  the  best 
and  most  familiar  example  of  this  special  and  har- 
monizing structure.     Its  sharp  bill  is  for  piercing 
wood  ;  its  foot,  with  two  toes  in  opposite  directions, 
is  just  fitted  for  clinging  to  the  limbs  on  either  side, 
or   upon  the  bark.     Its  tail-feathers    are    stiffened 
and  sharpened  at  the  points  to  act  as  supports ;  its 
tongue  is  barbed  like  a  steel  spear.    What  a  perfect 


1 1  o  Natural  Theology. 

specimen  he  is  ;  the  general  plan  is  perfect,  the 
details  are  perfect,  the  execution  is  perfect.  That 
tongue  that  cannot  utter  an  articulate  sound,  speaks 
in  a  language  which  every  reasonable  man  must 
understand.  It  was  not  only  skill  that  planned 
those  barbs,  but  it  was  a  higher  skill  that  so  organ- 
ized the  stomach  and  whole  system  of  the  bird 
that  the  blood  should  carry  to  the  tip  of  the  tongue 
just  the  materials  needed  to  form  that  spear. 
And  when  one  talks  of  development  through  use, 
it  is  incumbent  upon  him  to  show  some  ground  for 
believing  that  use  of  an  organ  can,  not  only  change 
its  form,  but  can  so  affect  the  system  that  it  shall 
provide  entirely  new  material  to  complete  the 
change. 

It  is  impossible  to  observe  so  many  skilful  and 
beautiful  arrangements  as  are  combined  in  the  struc- 
ture of  birds,  without  admiring  the  wisdom  and  skill 
of  their  Creator.  The  feather  in  all  its  parts,  the  oil 
gland,  and  the  crop,  are  all  special  adaptations,  and 
all  of  them  combined  for  the  same  purpose,  to  fit 
the  bird  for  its  place  in  the  animal  kingdom,  to 
carry  out  first  the  leading  idea  of  a  typical  bird. 
And  then  by  special  adaptations,  we  have  the  typical 
bird  modified,  giving  us  the  countless  varieties,  each 
one  fitted  for  its  sphere  of  life,  and  altogether  appa- 
rently exhausting  the  possibilities  of  bird-life.  So 
many  light,  aerial  ships  are  to  be  launched — and 
what  a  wealth  of  contrivance  in  the  distribution  of 
force,  and  in  the  rigging  of  each  little  craft !  What 
man   could   suggest  a  single   improvement   in  the 


Plan  of  Structure.  1 1 1 

structure  of  one  of  them,  to  better  fit  it  for  its 
instincts  and  mode  of  life  ?  Let  him  consider  the 
eagle  that  seems  never  to  tire,  while  he  rises  beyond 
the  reach  of  vision  ;  and  that  gem  of  beauty,  the 
humming-bird,  as  suspended  in  the  air  he  sips  the 
honey  like  a  bee  from  the  flower  ;  and  in  the  whole 
winged  tribe,  consider  the  perfect  adaptation  to  their 
place  by  special  contrivances,  and  he  need  not  go 
further  in  search  of  the  handiwork  of  infinite  wisdom 
and  skill. 

We  find  in  each  of  the  four  great  divisions  of  the 
animal  kingdom  a  series  of  homologies,  or  likeness 
of  structure.  The  organs  are  constructed  upon  the 
same  plan,  but  modified  for  specific  use.  It  is  this 
unity  of  plan  and  variety  of  modification  that  espe- 
cially arrests  our  attention  as  the  work  of  a  wise 
Being.  The  wisdom  is  shown  in  devising  a  plan 
capable  of  such  infinite  variations,  and  skill  is  mani- 
fested in  giving  such  variety  as  shall  adapt  the 
organs  to  the  use  of  animals  so  diverse,  without 
once  swerving  from  the  plan  in  which  the  grand 
idea  is  embodied.  Among  the  vertebrate  animals, 
this  unity  of  plan  and  diversity  of  execution  are  most 
easily  understood.  The  fin  of  the  fish,  the  wing  of  the 
bird,  the  claw  of  the  lion,  the  foot  of  the  ox,  and  the 
hand  of  man,  are  identical  in  their  plan  of  structure  ; 
but  the  plan  is  modified  to  such  an  extent  to  meet 
the  wants  of  each  species,  that  to  a  casual  observer 
there  would  seem  but  little,  if  any  relationship 
between  them.  But  when  their  bony  parts  are 
compared,  their  similarity  is  not  only  apparent,  but 


1 1 2  Natural  Theology. 

we  are  struck  with  admiration  at  the  permanence 
of  the  plan  which  appears  through  all  the  modifica- 
tions. Some  bones  are  lengthened,  some  are  short- 
ened, and  some  are  indeed  wanting  ;  but  enough 
are  left  to  give  an  outline.  The  pectoral  fin  of  the 
first  fish  in  the  Silurian  seas,  in  the  dim  geologic 
ages,  was  the  first  sketch  of  the  hand  of  man  which 
Nature  introduced  upon  the  globe.  And  from  that 
simple  sketch  she  never  varied  ;  but  the  plan  became 
more  definite  and  perfect,  and  higher  in  its  use>  as 
higher  animals  were  introduced,  till  an  organ  was 
produced  that  is  a  fit  servant  of  the  intelligence 
with  which  man  is  endowed. 

In  the  teeth  of  animals  we  have  a  marked  adapta- 
tion to  the  instincts  and  desires  of  the  various  spe- 
cies. The  Rodents,  of  which  the  beaver  and  squirrel 
are  well  known  types,  have  their  cutting-teeth  al- 
most as  hard  as  steel  upon  the  front,  and  softer  upon 
the  inside,  so  that  constant  use  is  sure  to  give  them 
a  sharp,  cutting  edge.  And  because  these  teeth 
are  subjected  to  such  constant  wear,  they  are  made 
to  grow  continuously.  We  see  here  a  need  to  be 
supplied,  and  the  structure  of  the  tooth  and  the 
unusual  condition  of  growth  are  both  combined  to 
secure  the  needed  result.  We  referred  to  the  early 
introduction  of  the  ball  and  socket  joint  in  the 
Echinus  for  the  joining  of  his  spines  upon  his  shell. 
The  same  animal  has  the  teeth  constructed  on  the 
same  plan  as  the  Rodents,  though  they  are  five  in 
number,  and  move  concentrically. 

In  carnivorous   animals,  the  teeth,  in  form  and 


Modifications  of  Teeth.  113 

position,  are  fitted  to  cut  and  tear.  Their  points 
are  sharp,  and  those  in  the  upper  and  lower  jaws 
pass  each  other  like  scissor-blades.  In  those  that 
feed  upon  insects,  fine,  sharp  points  fit  into  cor- 
responding indentations. 

In  herbivorous  animals,  the  modifications  are 
numerous,  but  always  adapted  to  the  food.  In  the 
horse,  the  layers  of  hard  and  soft  material  alternate 
in  the  crown  of  the  tooth,  so  that  under  constant 
use  the  surface  of  the  tooth  is  like  a  millstone  that 
is  picked  by  the  very  process  of  grinding.  And  in 
the  moose  and  deer  that  browse,  the  tooth  grows 
sharp  upon  the  outer  edge  like  a  chisel.  The 
mouth  of  the  Greenland  whale  is  another  marked 
case  of  adaptation  in  an  animal  for  the  food  upon 
which  he  lives.  This  largest  animal  upon  the  globe 
feeds  upon  the  minute  mollusks  and  crustaceans 
that  float  in  countless  numbers  in  the  northern 
seas.  For  such  food,  teeth  would  be  useless.  His 
huge  mouth  is  fitted  with  a  strainer  formed  by  the 
fringes  of  the  whalebone  plates.  By  this  curiously 
constructed  net  he  gathers  his  food  from  the 
waters. 

In  the  mouths  of  some  rays  and  other  fishes  that 
feed  upon  shell- fish,  there  is  a  solid  pavement  of 
bone,  both  above  and  below,  for  crushing  the  shells. 
In  birds  where  no  teeth  are  found,  and  the  food  is 
mostly  solid  seeds,  a  compensation  is  found  in  the 
crop,  in  which  the  food  is  held  for  a  time  and  gra- 
dually dropped  into  the  powerful  muscular  stomach 
fitted  to  grind  as  well  as  digest. 


H4  Natural  Theology. 

We  have  thus  given  some  of  the  more  common  ex- 
amples which  show  that,  in  addition  to  that  machinery 
of  structure  and  those  chemical  and  vital  changes 
common  to  all  animals,  by  which  they  are  fitted  to 
the  world,  there  cannot  be  a  single  species  found 
among  the  complex  animals,  where  there  cannot  be 
pointed  out  some  special  adaptation,  by  which  it 
occupies  a  particular  place,  or  performs  some  func- 
tion peculiar  to  itself.  These  adaptations  remind 
us  of  the  ingenuity  of  man  ;  they  often  suggest  con- 
trivances to  him  ;  they  are  never  such  that  he  could 
improve  upon  them  for  the  purpose  intended.  We 
might  enter  the  vegetable  kingdom  with  the  same 
result,  but  enough  will  appear  respecting  this  in  our 
general  discussion. 

We  have  selected  examples  at  random.  But  we 
might  add,  that  the  whole  progress  of  science  is 
simply  a  more  perfect  unfolding  of  adaptations, 
general  and  special ;  and  our  work  with  them  is 
done,  when  we  have  shown  that  each  species  has 
received  the  special  care  of  the  Creator.  And 
this  brings  us  next  to  notice  the  preservation  of 
species. 

We  regard  each  species  as  a  distinct  and  original 
creation.  It  embodied  some  distinct  idea  ;  but,  for 
our  present  purpose,  no  particular  theory  of  the  origin 
of  species  is  needed.  The  first  provision  for  the  pre- 
servation of  species  which  attracts  our  attention 
is  the  multiplicity  of  germs  produced.  It  seems  as 
though  there  had  been  a  calculation  of  chances,  and 
those  organic  beings  whose  conditions  of  life  expose 


Preservation  of  Species.  115 

their  young  to  destructive  agencies,  were  made  pro- 
lific to  an  amazing  degree.  In  some  of  the  lower 
forms  of  animal  life,  where  there  is  no  care  for  the 
young,  the  eggs  are  counted  by  millions.  The 
same  general  law  is  true  of  plants.  Their  seeds, 
as  a  general  thing,  are  food  for  animals,  and  are 
exposed  to  destroying  agencies,  and  their  produc- 
tiveness seems  in  proportion  to  the  chances  they 
must  run.  Who  can  compute  the  thousands  of 
acorns  that  must  have  fallen  from  some  of  the  old 
oaks  that  count  their  centuries  of  growth  ? 

Among  the  plants  we  find  special  contrivances 
for  the  distribution  of  their  seeds,  that  must  be  reck- 
oned as  one  means  of  preserving  species.  The 
Impatiens  opens  its  capsule  with  a  sudden  spring 
which  scatters  the  seed  far  from  the  parent  stalk. 
The  cranesbill  does  the  same,  except  that  each  seed 
is  held  by  its  own  little  spring,  which  is  ready  to 
throw  its  seed  when  ripe,  like  a  stone  from  a  sling. 
Numerous  seeds  are  edged  with  delicate  membranes, 
like  the  maple  and  elm,  so  that  every  gust  of  wind 
scatters  them  broadcast  upon  the  earth.  Others 
still  sail  on  silky  balloons  constructed  with  most 
exquisite  skill.  One  dandelion-seed  would  seem  to 
be  enough  to  cut  up  all  atheism  by  the  roots.  Its 
finely  spread  balloon,  with  its  seed  hanging  like  a 
miniature  car  as  it  floats  through  the  air,  is  cer- 
tainly a  piece  of  mechanism  perfect  for  the  end  in 
view.  The  seeds  of  other  plants  are  armed  with 
hooks,  barbed  like  finest  spears  or  hooks  of  steel. 
Almost  every  person  who  has  rambled  in  the  fields 


[  1 6  Natural  Theology. 

or  woods  in  autumn  has  been  annoyed  by  the  seeds 
of  vile  weeds  that  fasten  upon  his  clothing.  But 
when  he  pulls  them  off  and  casts  them  from  him,  he 
has  accomplished  nature's  purpose,  the  distribution 
of  the  plant.  The  detested  burdock  fastens  its  whole 
packages  of  seeds  upon  the  passer-by  with  its  mul- 
titude of  polished  hooks,  so  that  the  ripened  cover- 
ing is  sure  to  be  ruptured  before  it  can  be  unfas- 
tened, and  thus  its  seeds  are  scattered  upon  the  soil. 
These  are  a  few  of  the  examples  of  that  special  care 
which  Nature  takes,  that  the  germs  of  life  which 
she  has  prepared  may  be  scattered  where  they  may 
find  the  conditions  of  their  germination.  We  can 
hardly  help  recognising  design  in  the  distribution 
by  means  of  animals,  and  by  the  waters  of  the  ocean  ; 
but  these  may  by  some  be  regarded  as  accidental. 
But  when  we  see  the  machinery  of  springs,  of  bal- 
loons, and  cunningly-formed  hooks  and  barbs,  we 
recognise  a  purpose,  and  the  means  wisely  adapted 
to  carry  out  that  purpose.  We  see  the  same  thing 
aimed  at  in  both  kingdoms.  We  see  the  end  se- 
cured by  means  the  most  diverse,  so  unlike  that  one 
would  never  suggest  the  other,  much  less  do  they 
impress  us  as  resulting  from  any  process  of  deve- 
lopment. 

Still  another  provision  is  found  in  the  great  vital- 
ity of  certain  seeds.  Some  of  them  have  germi- 
nated after  having  lain  for  centuries.  It  is  no  uncom- 
mon thing  to  find  the  seeds  in  old  fields  springing 
up  with  vigor,  when  the  soil  is  turned  and  they  are 
brought  under  the  influence  of  the  sun  and  air. 


Balance  of  Species.  1 1 7 

We  shall  incidentally,  in  other  connections,  point 
out  many  of  nature's  plans  for  the  preservation  of 
species.  Instinct  brings  the  bee  to  fertilize  the 
flower,  that  but  for  her  would  fail  to  produce  seed, 
so  that  in  time  the  species  would  become  extinct. 
The  tree  provides  for  its  young  by  a  law  of  its  own 
growth,  and  the  animal  by  instinct  makes  provision 
for  its  young  wherever  peculiar  conditions  are  needed 
for  their  preservation.  The  vegetable  kingdom 
sometimes  supplements  that  instinct,  and  provides 
by  special  growth  both  food  and  home  for  the  insect 
young.  So  perfectly  are  all  these  means  adjusted, 
that,  so  far  as  we  know,  no  animal  or  plant  has  be- 
come extinct  in  modern  times  except  through  the 
agency  of  man. 

But  it  is  not  enough  that  the  species  should  be 
preserved  ;  there  must  also  be  a  balance  of  species. 
Too  great  a  preponderance  of  one  kind  would  be 
attended  by  injury  or  destruction  of  others.  The 
number  of  each  species  must  be  determined  by  its 
relations  to  other  organic  beings.  Carnivorous  ani- 
mals cannot  be  more  numerous  than  herbivorous. 
Birds  of  prey  must  be  few  in  number  compared  with 
those  upon  which  they  feed.  There  is  thus  a  cer- 
tain limit  fixed  to  the  relative  number  of  different 
animals,  by  the  amount  of  food  fitted  to  sustain  each 
kind,  and  by  the  climate  which  they  can  endure. 
But  nature  has  not  left  all  to  push  on  to  the  utmost 
bounds  of  possible  existence.  She  has  plainly  set 
limits  to  the  power  of  increase  among  the  great  de- 
stroyers of  animal  life,  that  the  species  which  she 


n8  Natural  Theology. 

has  created  may  not  struggle  for  existence  in  vain. 
The  animals  that  live  by  the  destruction  of  others 
are  not  less  in  number  because  only  a  few  can  pos- 
sibly survive.  They  are  less  by  creation,  by  the 
law  of  their  increase.  The  larger  and  more  de 
structive  any  animal  is,  the  less  rapidly  does  it  mul- 
tiply. So  that  while  nature  evidently  makes  pro- 
vision for  the  destruction  of  animals  by  others  on  a 
vast  scale,  it  is  not  a  part  of  her  plan  to  increase 
any  species  without  supplying  adequate  food  for  its 
support.  The  tribes  that  are  most  prolific  are  fol- 
lowed ever  by  multitudes  of  enemies,  so  that  their 
number  shall  not  be  unduly  increased.  Some  few  ex- 
amples there  are,  like  the  locust  tribes,  that  show  us 
what  might  be  the  result  were  there  not  the  well  ar- 
ranged balance  which  so  generally  prevails  in  nature. 

In  order  to  secure  the  balance  of  species  a  mighty 
machinery  is  at  work,  bringing  suffering  and  death. 
We  recognise  design  in  the  machinery  ;  but  what 
shall  we  say  of  the  goodness  of  a  Being  whose 
wisdom  reaches  its  end  through  pain  and  suffering, 
however  perfectly  the  end  may  be  secured  ? 

We  may  speculate  on  the  possible  constitution  of 
animals  by  which  they  might  be  freed  from  pain 
and  suffering.  But  it  is  not  certain  at  all  that  such 
a  constitution  is  possible  in  a  world  like  this,  with- 
out at  the  same  time  diminishing  the  capacity  for 
enjoyment.  And  if  we  accept  the  present  animal 
constitution  as  a  wise  and  good  one,  then  the 
destruction  of  animal  life  can  be  fully  vindicated  as  a 
manifestation  of  goodness. 


Disease  and  Death.  119 

In  considering  this  subject,  we  will,  for  the  pres- 
ent, exclude  man.  For  though  he  is  liable  to  pain 
and  death  like  the  meanest  animal  on  the  globe,  he 
has  a  moral  nature,  and  claims  to  be  immortal  ;  so 
that  it  is  possible  to  put  pain  and  suffering  on 
entirely  different  grounds  when  considering  man, 
from  what  we  can  when  considering  the  lower  ani- 
mals. Man's  highest  enjoyment  or  suffering  is  cer- 
tainly not  connected  with  his  physical  system.  He 
can  in  his  moral  strength  despise  both  pain  and 
death.  We  shall  have  occasion  to  refer  to  this  sub- 
ject when  treating  of  the  adaptation  of  the  world  to 
the  moral  nature  of  man.  But  for  the  present,  we 
wish  to  inquire  what  can  be  inferred  of  the  charac- 
ter of  the  Creator,  from  the  pain  and  death  of  the 
lower  animals. 

The  two  main  points  which  we  wish  to  make  are 
these  : 

First. — That  by  death  among  the  lower  animals, 
a  greater  amount  of  enjoyment  is  secured  to  them 
as  a  class  than  could  be  secured  without  it. 

Second. — In  disease  and  all  methods  by  which 
death  is  produced,  no  case  can  be  pointed  out  in 
which  suffering  is  plainly  inflicted  for  its  own  sake. 

If  it  can  be  shown  that  happiness  among  animals 
is  in  excess  of  misery,  and  that  there  are  provisions 
made  for  relieving  pain  and  curing  disease,  then  the 
burden  is  on  those  who  doubt  either  the  existence 
or  perfect  benevolence  of  the  Creator,  to  show  that 
there  is  not  a  wise  and  good  reason  for  the  exist- 
ence of  so  much  pain  and  suffering  as  are  found  in 


120  Natural  Theology. 

the  world.  They  are  here ;  but  since  no  case 
appears  where  they  are  inflicted  for  their  own  sake, 
we  infer  that  their  existence  is  compatible  with  the 
highest  benevolence  of  a  Creator,  who  through 
those  means  may  be  able  to  secure  the  best  results 
upon  the  whole.  If  we  take  any  class  of  animals, 
there  is  no  question  but  the  amount  of  their  physi- 
cal enjoyment  vastly  surpasses  the  pain  and  suffer- 
ing which  they  endure.  The  majority  of  animals 
have  a  lifetime  of  physical  enjoyment  with  but  a 
single  pang,  or  the  suffering  of  a  few  moments, 
when  death  comes.  But  the  question  returns,  why 
should  the  pang  of  death  come  at  all,  and  how  is 
increase  of  enjoyment  secured  by  it  ?     We  answer  : 

First. — Any  constitution  of  animals  that  excluded 
death  would  exclude  the  parental  relation.  And 
the  love  and  care  of  offspring  are  a  source  of 
delight  to  all  the  higher  tribes,  and  we  have  no 
reason  for  supposing  that  there  may  not  be  enjoy- 
ment connected  with  reproduction  among  the  lower 
tribes,  even  where  there  is  no  conscious  parental 
relation. 

Second. — In  consequence  of  death,  we  have  new 
generations  coming  each  year  into  existence  for 
enjoyment,  instead  of  the  continuance  of  the  same 
individuals  for  ever.  There  is  no  question  but  the 
sum  of  animal  enjoyment  is  increased  beyond  com- 
putation by  the  succession  of  animals  upon  the  globe. 

Third. — The  number  of  animals  that  now  exist  is 
vastly  greater  than  could  exist  if  all  were  vegetable 
feeders. 


Carnivorous  Animals.  12 1 

If  now  we  grant  that  these  animals  have  more 
enjoyment  than  suffering  during  their  existence, 
any  method  that  increases  the  number  of  animals 
adds  to  the  sum  of  animal  enjoyment  in  the  world. 
If  we  consider  the  vegetable-feeders  that  are  de- 
stroyed, their  destruction  by  carnivorous  animals 
cannot  be  reckoned  a  misfortune  to  them  as  a  class. 
It  shortens  animal  enjoyment  in  the  individual,  but 
it  saves  individual  suffering  in  the  end,  and  in- 
creases the  sum  of  enjoyment  for  the  whole  class 
Many  more  individuals  among  vegetable-feeders 
come  to  maturity  now  than  could  find  food  if  all 
were  allowed  to  live  the  full  term  of  life.  We  thus 
have  the  enjoyment  of  several  young  animals  for  a 
short  time,  cut  off  in  a  moment,  instead  of  the 
enjoyment  of  one  animal  living  a  much  longer  time 
with  weakened  powers  of  enjoyment  and  suffering 
in  the  end  from  hunger  and  weakness  of  old  age. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  in  which  way  the  greatest 
amount  of  animal  enjoyment  is  secured.  Old  age 
to  man  is  desirable,  cheered  by  the  companionship 
of  friends  ;  and  disease  itself  may  prove  a  moral 
blessing.  But  for  brutes,  old  age  and  disease  are 
not  thus  mitigated.  And  provision  has  been  made 
that  among  wild  animals  they  should  be  impossible, 
or  of  the  shortest  possible  duration.  When  the 
powers  of  an  animal  have  been  weakened  by  old 
age  or  disease,  some  watchful  enemy  is  generally 
upon  his  track,  and  his  sufferings  are  ended  in  a 
moment.  By  the  introduction  of  beasts  and  birds 
of  prey,  then,  animals  are  destroyed  with  less  pain 

6 


122  Natural  Theology. 

than  by  disease  or  old  age,  and  their  destruction  is 
a  source  of  enjoyment  to  the  destroyers.     Granting, 
then,  that  the  mere   capability   of  suffering  is  no 
proof  of  malevolence,  the  introduction  of  carnivorous 
animals  certainly  shows  a  benevolent  Creator.    For 
by  this  provision  we  have  a  saving  of  suffering  to 
one   portion  of  the    animal   kingdom,    and   at  the 
same  time  an    increase  of  enjoyment  for  another. 
But  we  have  also  death  from  disease.     It  would 
certainly   be   difficult  to  show   benevolence    here, 
were   there   not    plainly   provisions    made    for    the 
alleviation  of  suffering.     And  all  that  we  feel  bound 
to  show  is,  that  suffering  is  not  inflicted  for  its  own 
sake.     That  there  is  design  and  plan  in  disease,  has 
been  of  late  fully  illustrated.     Indeed,   were   there 
not,  the  study  of  diseases  would  be  hopeless.     But 
design  does  not  by  any  means  always  imply  benevo- 
lence.    It  may  show  cruelty  as  well.     Yet  some- 
times there  may  be  apparent  cruelty  where  there  is 
the  fullest   benevolence.       It  is  easy   to   see   the 
design  of  the  surgeon,  as  he  severs  the  flesh  and 
bone  of  the  limb  apparently  sound.      It   is   to  cut 
off  the  limb.     And  if  we  saw  the  operation  now  for 
the  first  time,  and  knew  nothing  of  surgery,   and 
nothing  of  the  cause  of  the  act,  it  would  seem  to  us 
unmitigated  cruelty.     But  if  we  saw  the  operator 
first  put  the  patient  into  an  insensible  state  so  as  to 
diminish  pain,  and  then  tend  him  carefully  till  a 
cure  was  completed,  we  should  have  good  grounds 
for  supposing  that  the  operator  was  not  a  malevo- 
lent being  ;  but  on  the  other  hand,  we  should  rea- 


Benevolence  of  the  Creator.  123 

sonably  infer  that  there  was  the  controlling  princi- 
ple of  benevolence  in  the  whole  transaction,  even  in 
that  part  which  seemed  most  cruel. 

Now  the  animal  system  is  liable  to  pain  from  dis- 
ease and  accident.  This  fact  standing  by  itself, 
would  look  like  malevolence  in  the  Creator.  But 
since  there  is  provision  for  counteracting  disease 
and  diminishing  pain,  even  among  the  lower  animals, 
we  not  only  have  a  right,  but  are  bound  to  infer 
that  the  Being  who  gave  the  capacity  of  suffering 
and  allowed  disease,  did  so  for  a  wise  purpose, 
and  with  no  malevolent  design.  Certain  it  is  that 
remedies  have  been  provided  in  nature  both  for  the 
alleviation  of  pain  and  the  cure  of  disease.  And 
if  a  bone  is  broken,  nature  has  her  machinery  ready 
to  join  the  fractured  portions  together,  and  so  sur- 
round their  roughened  points  that  suffering  shall  be 
brought  to  an  end.  Amidst  all  the  pain  and  suffer- 
ing among  animals,  then,  we  see  benevolence  in  the 
provisions  made  for  their  alleviation.  We  see  that 
physical  enjoyment  among  animals  is  vastly  in 
excess  of  suffering.  We  see  no  case  where  suffer- 
ing is  inflicted  for  its  own  sake.  With  all  these 
evidences  of  His  good-will  before  us,  we  cannot 
believe  that  the  Creator  takes  pleasure  in  suffering. 
And  if  he  does  not  take  pleasure  in  it,  we  see  enough 
of  His  wisdom  and  skill  in  securing  results  to  be 
sure  that  the  pain  and  suffering  incident  to  animal 
life  have  a  wise  purpose,  or  He  would  not  allow  them. 
It  is  not  needful  for  our  present  purpose  to  discuss 
the  possible  theories  why  they  are  allowed.     The 


124  Natural  Theology. 

machinery  of  this  universe  is  vast.  The  machinery 
at  work  on  our  globe  is  complicated  beyond  measure. 
It  is  not  strange  that,  when  contemplating  a  part, 
there  should  seem  to  be  want  of  adjustment ;  and  that 
in  our  self-sufficiency  we  should  impugn  the  wisdom 
of  the  Ordainer,  and  distrust  His  goodness.  But 
when  we  wait,  when  we  have  looked  long,  has  our 
patient,  careful  search  ever  detected  a  mistake  ?  The 
more  the  machinery  is  seen,  the  more  complete  all  its 
parts  appear,  the  better  seems  its  adaptation  to  the  end 
in  view.  Of  what  human  works  can  this  be  said  ? 
They  appear  perfect  at  the  first  glance,  but  careful 
looking  reveals  imperfection  in  construction  and 
defect  in  execution.  Who  but  a  Being  infinite  in 
all  His  attributes  could  so  adjust  all  animal  life  upon 
the  globe  as  to  secure  the  continuance  of  the  species 
He  had  created  ; — could  so  establish  their  relations, 
as  by  the  very  law  of  destruction  and  death  to 
secure  the  greatest  enjoyment  ? 

We  have  necessarily  turned  aside  somewhat  for 
this  brief  discussion,  but  we  have  done  so  with  a 
purpose  ;  because  when  we  return  again  to  consider 
the  provision  made  for  man,  we  wish  him  to  stand 
entirely  disconnected  from  the  lower  animals,  that 
we  may  consider  him  as  an  intellectual  and  moral 
being.  It  seemed  proper  to  speak  of  the  destruction 
of  the  lower  animals  in  connection  with  the  balance 
of  species  which  depends  so  largely  upon  it. 

We  have  now  seen  the  adaptation  of  man  and  all 
other  sentient  beings  to  the  world — a  series  of 
adaptations  implying,  certainly  in  the  Creator,  the 


Conclusion.  125 

attributes  of  a  personal  being  ;  the  highest  wisdom 
and  skill  controlled  by  benevolence,  even  in  con- 
nection with  pain,  disease,  and  death.  It  is  only  in 
the  structure  and  instincts  of  animals,  and  in  the 
provisions  made  for  them  as  sentient  beings,  that 
benevolence  can  be  shown.  But  the  other  attributes 
of  the  Creator  are  clearly  manifested  in  plant  life,  to 
which  we  next  turn. 


LECTURE  V. 

ADAPTATION    OF    PLANTS    TO    THE    WORLD. 

Design  in  plants  seeii  only  in  organization. — Natural  selec- 
tion.— Provision  made  by  plants  compared  with  instinct. — 
Wisdo?n  manifested  by  instinct  referred  to  the  Creator. — 
Relation  of  plants  to  earth  and  air. — Polarity. — Structure 
of  leaves. — Fall  of  leaf — Structure  of  wide-leaved  trees. 
— Of  evergreens. — Position  of  buds. — Mathematical  order. 
— Sy?n?netry  and  welfare  of  tree  secured. —  Variety  of  habit. 
— Fitted  for^  soil. — Climate  and  place  in  the  solar  system. 
— Power  of* the  bud. —  Young  fruits. — Structure  of  buds. — 
Pood  stored  up. —  The  potato. — Beet  and  Parsnip. — Cen- 
tury plant. — Orchis. — Solomon' 's-seal. — Structure  of  seed. 
—  Perfection  and  variety  of  machinery.  —  Relation  of 
plants  and  animals. — Effect  of  each  on  the  air. —  Vegetable 
kingdom  subservient  to  the  animal. — Its  support. — Oak 
galls. — Plants  respond  to  the  insecfs  instmct.— Fertiliza- 
tion of  plants  by  insects. — Squashes. — Forget-me-nots. — 
Orchids. — Results. 

It  is  a  remark  of  Paley  that  design  is  perhaps  less 
apparent  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  than  in  the  ani- 
mal. This  may  be  true,  but  the  argument  for  design 
in  plants  has  certainly  some  advantages.  Evidence 
of  design  in  plants  must  be  sought  for  exclusively 
in  the  structure  and  function  of  their  organs.  There 
is  no  mind,  no  instinct.  All  changes  in  them,  and  all 
provision  which  they  make  for  their  individual  wel- 
fare, and  for  their  species,  must  therefore  be  the 
result  of  organization,  and  not  of  contrivance  origi- 
nating in  thought,  inherent  in  themselves.  Where 
there  is  a  thinking  being,  it  is  natural  for  us   to 


Design  in  Plants.  127 

ascribe  to  it  a  measure  of  wisdom  in  providing  for 
itself  and  for  its  young,  and  we  may  imagine,  as 
some  naturalists  have,  that  the  adaptations  of  an 
animal  grow  out  of  conscious  attempts  to  harmonize 
its  relations  to  the  external  world.  But  with  the 
plant,  nothing  of  this  kind  can  be  claimed.  The  prin- 
ciple of  natural  selection  may  be  insisted  upon,  and 
the  claim  made,  that  we  find  the  present  tribes  of 
plants,  only  because  they  happen  to  be  fitted  for  the 
place  in  which  they  are  found  ;  and  thus  they  survive, 
while  their  kindred,  with  less  perfect  relations,  have 
been  destroyed.  But  the  fact  remains,  that  those 
plants  which  now  clothe  the  earth  are  what  they 
are  from  no  attempt  on  their  part  to  better  their 
condition  or  to  complete  their  adaptation  to  the 
world.  They  are  what  they  are  either  by  chance 
or  by  design  in  their  creation.  Any  other  supposi- 
tion no  man  would  pretend  to  make. 

He  may  talk  of  some  law  by  which  they  are  fitted  to 
their  place  by  development.  But  he  cannot  believe 
that  plants  establish  laws  for  themselves.  If  they 
are  under  any  law,  that  law  was  established  for  them. 
Whether  the  adaptation  of  plants  to  the  world  is  the 
result  of  chance,  by  which  some  favored  ones  have 
developed  in  the  right  direction,  so  as  to  maintain 
their  ground  against  all  destroying  agencies,  or 
whether  they  were  created  as  they  are,  and  all  their 
relations  established  by  an  intelligent  Designer,  can 
only  be  learned  from  a  careful  consideration  of  their 
structure  and  relations.  If  it  be  said  that  the  pro- 
visions which  they  make  are  analogous  to  those 


128  Natural  Theology. 

made  by  animals  under  the  guidance  of  instinct,  and 
that  therefore  their  creation  proves  nothing  higher 
than  instinct  in  their  Creator,  we  answer  that  instinct, 
even,  cannot  be  regarded,  by  any  fair  consideration 
of  that  attribute,  other  than  the  power  of  seeking 
ends  under  an  impulse.  It  often  knows  nothing  of 
those  ends  ;  and,  in  many  cases,  when  its  work  is 
most  perfect,  it  knows  nothing  of  the  relation  of  the 
means  to  the  ends.  It  does  certain  things  as  the 
common  mechanic  might  bore  a  hole,  or  make  a 
mortice,  where  it  had  been  marked  by  the  master- 
builder,  without  knowing  anything  of  the  place  the 
timber  was  to  occupy  in  the  structure.  But  if  there 
is  any  wisdom  apparent  in  the  choice  of  ends,  and 
in  the  choice  of  means  to  secure  those  ends,  that 
wisdom  belongs  to  a  being  of  higher  rank  than  one 
of  instinct.  We  must  refer  that  wisdom  back  to  the 
Being  where  it  belongs,  and  not  be  misled  by  the 
number  of  secondary  agents  that  He  calls  into  action 
to  work  out  results  under  His  guidance. 

The  first  relation  of  plants  that  demands  our 
attention  is  to  the  earth  and  air.  It  is  from  both  of 
these  that  the  majority  of  plants  draw  their  support. 
The  root,  as  though  loving  darkness,  plunges  into 
the  earth  ;  the  branch,  with  its  leaves,  seeks  the 
light.  This  polarity  of  the  tree  is  striking,  appear- 
ing as  soon  as  the  germ  begins  to  develop.  Both 
branch  and  root  are  formed  from  cells  of  originally 
the  same  nature,  for,  under  proper  conditions,  the 
root  may  put  forth  buds  and  leaves,  while  the  branch, 
under  the  influence  of  darkness  and  moisture,  deve- 


Provision  for  Winter.  1 29 

lops  roots.  But  the  welfare  of  the  tree  demands  that 
there  should  be  this  polarity,  and  here  we  find  it ;  a 
portion  constantly  plunging  into  the  earth  to  keep 
the  plant  in  position,  and  furnish  it  with  those  salts 
from  the  earth  needed  for  its  growth,  and  the  opposite 
portion  just  as  plainly  seeking  the  sunlight  and  the 
air,  having  a  structure  just  fitted  for  its  work.  The 
root  divides  and  subdivides,  stretching  far  through 
the  soil,  gathering  in  its  richness  ;  while  the  leaves 
give  increased  surface  for  sweeping  the  gases  from 
the  air,  and  for  preparing  the  crude  materials  for  the 
use  of  the  plant. 

All  the  varied  forms  of  leaves  are  such  as  to  favor 
radiation,  and  thus  to  condense  the  dews  upon 
them.  The  delicate  but  firm  woody  framework, 
like  the  vessel's  spars,  keeps  the  soft  tissues  stretched 
in  place,  that  abundant  surface  may  be  secured  with 
light  weight. 

We  cannot  but  admire  that  provision  by  which 
all  wide-leaved  trees  in  the  northern  zone,  where 
snows  and  ice  abound,  are  prepared  for  the  winter. 
Their  leaves  appear  as  by  magic  in  the  spring, 
but  the  stem  of  every  leaf  has  its  curious  joint,  so 
that  when  the  summer  is  past  and  the  leaf  becomes 
ripe  or  is  killed  by  the  frost,  it  drops  from  the  tree, 
and  naked  branches  alone  are  exposed  to  the  snow, 
and  ice,  and  winds  of  winter.  Further  south,  wide- 
leaved  trees  are  evergreen  ;  but  were  they  so  in 
northern  climes,  with  their  present  structure,  the 
species  would  be  destroyed.  One  single  winter 
would  ruin  our  elms,  and  maples,  and  kindred  trees, 

6* 


130  Natural  Theology. 

if  their  "leaves  remained  upon  them.  Their  trunks 
divide  into  large  branches,  that  in  some  old  trees 
break  down  by  their  own  weight.  And  these  large 
branches,  if  loaded  with  snow  and  ice,  would  be  torn 
from  them  by  the  winds,  and  decay  and  death  would 
follow.  But  our  northern  evergreens,  the  spruce, 
the  firs,  and  pines,  were  made  to  endure  the  frosts 
and  snow  without  danger.  Their  whole  plan  of 
structure  is  different  from  that  of  the  broad-leaved 
trees. .  Their  trunks  rise  single  shafts,  never  divided 
except  by  accident.  Their  limbs  are  disposed  in 
circles  ;  they  are  small,  compared  with  the  size  of 
the  trees.  They  are  not  subdivisions  of  the  trunk, 
but  are  fastened  into  it  as  pins  are  driven  into  posts. 
The  well-arranged,  bending  limbs,  remind  one  at 
once  of  a  well-formed  roof,  from  which  the  snow 
easily  slides.  Even  when  the  ice  gathers  upon  them, 
they  are  with  the  greatest  difficulty  broken  from  the 
trunk  ;  and  if  broken,  their  structure  is  such  that 
harm  is  seldom  done  to  the  main  shaft. 

Here,  then,  we  have  all  wide-leaved  trees,  like 
prudent  mariners,  furling  their  sails  when  the  dan- 
gers of  winter  approach,  thus  presenting  only  bare 
poles  to  the  wind,  while  most  of  the  northern  cone- 
bearing  trees,  as  though  conscious  of  the  strength 
of  their  spars,  keep  every  stitch  of  canvas  spread 
and  bid  defiance  to  the  storm. 

Did  the  elm  form  the  joint  to  its  leaf  and  deter- 
mine the  time  for  it  to  do  its  appointed  work  before 
the  frosts  and  snow  ?  Did  the  pine  and  spruce  find 
by  experience  how  their  limbs  must  be  fastened  to 


Position  of  Buds.  13 1 

the  trunk,  and  that  the  trunk  must  be  kept  solid 
and  entire — a  single  shaft  ?  Did  any  force  in  nature 
establish  these  relationships  by  which  the  tree  is 
not  only  fitted  to  the  earth  and  air,  but  to  the  dan- 
gers of  particular  zones. 

The  position  of  the  bud  is  also  worthy  of  atten- 
tion. Every  plant  has  a  specific  form,  and  this  form 
is  due  mainly  to  the  position  of  the  buds  upon  its 
stem.  They  appear  in  an  exact  relation  to  each 
other,  which  in  each  species  can  always  be  repre- 
sented by  a  fixed  mathematical  expression.  Since 
buds  represent  leaves  and  flowers  and  branches,  not 
only  the  symmetry  but  the  welfare  of  the  tree  de- 
mands that  there  should  be  some  definite  order  or 
plan  in  their  distribution.  Were  it  not  so,  leaves 
might  be  crowded  together  on  some  branches  and 
scattered  far  apart  on  others,  and  the  same  would 
be  true  of  the  branches  on  the  trunk. 

By  this  mathematical  arrangement  of  branches 
and  leaves,  the  beauty  of  the  tree  is  secured,  it  has 
greater  strength,  and  the  leaves  are  best  distributed 
for  contact  with  the  air.  When  the  tree  is  injured 
or  diseased,  it  sometimes  puts  out  buds  without 
order,  but  we  see  at  once  that  they  mar  the  beauty 
of  the  tree,  and  that  the  power  by  which  it  builds  up 
a  symmetrical  whole  has  been  overcome,  for  such 
branches  never  grow  in  any  fixed  relation  to  the 
parent  stock.  They  grow  like  independent  plants, 
while  every  branch  that  grows  from  the  appointed 
place,  at  once  bends  itself  in  obedience  to  the  pa- 
rent tree. 


132  Natural  Theology. 

A  second  matter  of  interest  is  the  variety  of 
habit  in  plants,  by  which  they  are  fitted  to  so  much 
of  the  surface  of  the  earth.  There  are  but  few 
places  where  vegetation  of  some  kind  cannot  be 
found.  The  variety  of  structure  and  of  habit  by 
which  this  is  secured,  is  certainly  worthy  of  an 
intelligent  and  wise  Creator. 

Not  only  does  every  zone  have  its  vegetation, 
but  every  variety  of  soil  has  its  own  peculiar  plants. 
The  various  trees  may  mingle  together  to  form  a 
forest,  but  the  willows  line  the  borders  of  streams, 
bind  the  banks  together,  and  bathe  their  thirsty 
roots  in  the  water.  The  grasses  weave  their  car- 
pet in  the  meadows  ;  the  dry  and  wet  lands  having 
very  different  kinds,  which  always  find  their  own 
place  without  the  aid  of  man.  The  humble  lichen 
adorns  the  unyielding  rock  and  the  trunks  of  aged 
trees. 

The  fragrant  lily  lays  its  long  roots  beneath  the 
waters,  and  floats  its  leaf  and  flower  upon  its  sur- 
face. Some  plants  cluster  near  the  ocean,  and 
others  fasten  upon  the  rocks,  where  its  waves  can 
wash  them  ;  and  others  still  plunge  deeper  down,  and 
form  gardens  and  groves  beneath  the  waters.  The 
feathery  palm  finds  its  home  in  the  torrid  zone  ;  the 
hoary,  creeping  willow  steals  along  beneath  the 
snow  towards  the  icy  pole.  Thus  the  earth  is 
covered  with  vegetation,  and  in  the  vast  scale  of 
adaptations  presented  by  the  multitudes  of  species, 
every  zone  and  every  soil  is  provided  for. 

Not  only  are  the  plants  fitted  for  every  zone  and 


Place  in  the  Solar  System.  133 

every  soil,  but  they  are  also  fitted  to  our  place  in 
the  solar  system.  There  is  a  direct  relation  between 
the  cycle  of  growth  in  ordinary  plants  and  the  length 
of  the  year.  The  different  zones  have  indeed  sea- 
sons of  very  different  lengths,  but  their  plants  either 
cannot  grow  in  other  zones  at  all,  or  if  they  do,  they 
as  a  general  thing  still  require  the  same  conditions 
as  they  had  in  their  own  locality.  There  is  for  each 
species  a  proper  season  for  the  germination  of  the 
seed,  or  for  the  unfolding  of  buds  already  formed  ; 
a  time  for  growth,  and  a  time  for  maturing  seeds  or 
buds  for  the  succeeding  year. 

There  is  indeed  great  power  of  adaptation,  espe- 
cially among  cultivated  plants,  so  that  they  are  sub- 
servient to  the  artificial  conditions  that  man  can 
bring  to  bear  upon  them.  But  even  under  artificial 
conditions  of  the  hot-house  they  have  their  cycle  of 
growth.  Such  plants  of  the  torrid  zone  as  seem  to 
have  little  annual  change,  show  their  adaptation  by 
their  power  to  endure  the  climate  of  that  region. 
But  among  all  the  adaptations  that  can  be  pointed  out, 
not  one  can  be  mentioned  that  militates  against  the 
statement  that  the  plants  upon  the  earth  are  adjust- 
ed in  their  changes  and  growth  to  our  distance 
from  the  sun  and  our  movements  through  the  hea- 
vens. The  unfolding  leaf,  the  bundles  of  fibres  in 
the  trunk,  and  the  maturing  buds  and  fruit,  all 
know  their  time  by  the  earth's  position  among  the 
stars. 

How  strange  it  is,  that  the  early  frosts  have  power 
to  kill  the  full-grown  leaf  on  our  fruit  and    forest 


134  Natural  Theology. 

trees,  but  not  even  the  icy  fierceness  of  winter's  cold 
can  harm  the  young  and  tender  leaf  and  flower  folded 
in  the  bud.  They  have  not  yet  done  their  work,  and 
therefore  they  are  preserved.  But  what  explanation 
can  be  given  of  how  it  is  done  ?  They  are  carefully 
packed  and  protected  indeed,  and  this  has  been  re- 
garded as  an  evidence  of  design ;  but  the  whole  bud 
is  exposed  and  frozen  in  spite  of  its  skilful  struc- 
ture. The  mature  leaf,  though  protected  with  ten 
times  the  care,  could  not  withstand  the  cold  to 
which  the  bud  is  exposed.  Is  that  power  in  the 
young  leaf  which  withstands  the  frost  any  less  won- 
derful than  the  structure  of  the  leaf  or  bud  ?  Is  it 
any  satisfactory  explanation  to  call  it  natural,  the 
nature  of  the  bud  ?  How  came  the  bud  by  this  na- 
ture ?  If  we  were  left  to  reason  on  the  subject,  we 
should  infer  that  the  tender  unexpanded  leaf  would 
be  the  first  to  feel  the  blight  of  winter.  By  what 
process  of  development  was  this  strange  power  given 
to  the  bud,  this  unexpected  superiority  over  the  fall- 
grown  leaf?  Is  any  other  account  so  reasonable  as 
to  suppose  this  power  was  given  by  a  wise  Creator 
who  understood  the  conditions  of  the  globe,  and 
gave  to  the  plants,  to  the  leaf  and  bud,  the  exact 
power  they  needed  to  meet  those  conditions  ? 

The  same  peculiar  power  possessed  by  the  bud 
belongs  to  certain  fruits.  The  young  acorns  on 
some  of  our  oaks,  which  require  two  years  to  mature 
their  fruit,  and  the  apparently  tender  seeds  of  the 
witch-hazel,  defy  the  coldest  winters.  In  fact,  what- 
ever part  of  the  plant  is  required  to  live  over  from 


Instinct-like  Provisions.  135 

one  season  to  the  next  in  order  to  preserve  the  spe- 
cies, has  this  peculiar  power  of  withstanding  cold, 
although  it  may  appear  the  tenderest  portion  of  the 
whole  structure.  In  most  of  the  cases  thus  far 
mentioned  the  relationship  of  the  plant  arises  from 
what  is  ordinarily  termed  the  nature  of  the  organs, 
but  the  action  of  these  organs  is  also  important. 
Many  of  the  results  produced  by  the  functions  of 
organs  are  so  specific  and  so  well  understood,  that 
they  present  strong  analogies  to  certain  acts  of  ani- 
mals under  the  guidance  of  instinct  or  intelligence. 

The  loss  of  the  leaf  already  alluded  to  might  per- 
haps be  reckoned  among  the  instinct-like  provi- 
sions which  the  tree  makes  for  its  preservation  ;  but 
in  this  case  it  more  resembles  certain  organic 
changes  in  animals  in  which  they  are  mostly  pas- 
sive, as  in  the  shedding  of  the  winter  coat  in  spring. 
The  animal  has  no  power  to  produce  this  change, 
though  he  may  be  indirectly  an  actor.  The  snake 
could  never  slip  out  of  its  skin,  nor  the  lobster  from 
its  shell,  nor  the  ox  remove  his  coat,  if  there  had 
not  been  a  provision  in  the  organization  and  func- 
tion of  each  for  a  periodical  loosening  of  the  scales 
and  shell  and  hair. 

But  as  by  the  animal,  certain  provisions  are  made 
from  instinct  for  its  own  welfare  and  that  of  its 
young ;  so  in  plants  we  find  analogous  provisions 
made,  as  though  they  were  sentient  beings. 

Some  provisions  made  for  the  maturing,  protec- 
tion, and  early  growth  of  buds  and  seeds,  are  of  this 
nature. 


136  Natural  Theology. 

The  structure  of  all  leaf-buds  is  essentially  the 
same,  and  in  some  of  our  trees,  as  in  the  horse-chest- 
nut, they  can  be  examined  without  difficulty.  The 
delicate  leaves  all  formed,  are  closely  packed  together 
in  softest  down.  They  are  then  covered  with  closely 
fitting  scales,  and  these  again  by  a  coating  of  inso- 
luble varnish.  Mechanically,  the  whole  contrivance 
is  perfect,  and  the  work  most  skilfully  done.  In 
adapting  means  to  ends,  the  structure  of  the  bud  is 
not  surpassed  by  any  work  of  man. 

But  that  bud  is  first  to  put  out  leaves,  and  these 
leaves  are  the  organs  for  elaborating  sap.  How  shall 
the  tree,  stripped  of  its  leaves,  supply  itself  with 
food  while  pushing  out  the  myriad  of  new  leaves 
from  its  buds  ?  Like  the  instinct-guided  bee,  it  has 
laid  up  provision  for  the  time  of  need.  When  it  has 
nearly  finished  its  growth  for  one  year,  it  makes 
provision  for  the  year  that  is  to  come.  In  the  axle 
of  the  leaf,  the  bud  is  set  which,  another  spring,  is 
to  unfold  in  leaves  and  elongate  into  the  branch. 
While  this  bud  is  fashioned  and  set  in  its  place,  food 
is  also  stored  up  in  the  tissues  in  form  of  starch  and 
sugar  and  other  organic  materials  for  the  support  of 
that  bud  while  expanding  its  leaves.  The  same 
principle  is  seen  in  a  more  striking  manner  in  some 
of  our  cultivated  plants. 

The  potato  is  only  a  thickened  underground  stem. 
Its  eyes  correspond  to  the  buds  upon  the  common 
branch  ;  and  the  store  of  starch,  so  nutritious  for 
food,  was  placed  there  to  develop  those  eyes  into 
stems  at  the  appointed  time.      When  the  potato 


Stores  of  Food.  137 

sprouts  in  spring  without  contact  with  the  earth, 
the  stalk  feeds  upon  this  store  of  food  gathered  for 
its  use.  The  beet,  and  parsnip,  and  other  kindred 
plants,  produce  an  abundance  of  flowers  and  fruit, 
but  not  till  the  second  year.  The  first  year,  the 
whole  energy  of  the  plant  is  spent  in  providing  a 
large  succulent  root  stored  with  sugar  and  other 
organized  materials.  The  second  year,  its  whole 
energy  seems  to  be  spent  in  producing  an  abun- 
dance of  fruit,  and  now  it  draws  upon  the  collected 
stores  of  the  first  year,  and  thus  produces  results 
which  would  be  impossible,  were  it  compelled  to 
elaborate  its  food  when  suddenly  needed  by  its  mul- 
titudes of  flowers  and  seeds. 

Other  plants  are  many  years,  instead  of  one,  in 
making  this  provision.  The  so-called  century 
plant  and  others  in  their  thick  leaves  store  up  vast 
magazines  of  materials,  that  are  used  with  astonish- 
ing rapidity  when  the  time  comes  for  them  to  send 
up  their  stems  and  produce  their  fruit.  The  same 
process  may  be  observed  in  many  of  our  perennial 
herbaceous  plants,  that  do  much  of  their  curious 
work  beneath  the  soil.  The  broad-leaved  orchis 
and  the  Solomon's-seal  are  examples.  They  pro- 
vide a  large  and  vigorous  bud  as  parent  of  the  next 
year's  plant,  and  while  a  portion  of  the  old  root 
decays,  the  remaining  portion  is  packed  with  food 
to  send  up  from  that  bud  now  hidden  in  the  soil,  a 
vigorous  plant  in  the  early  spring,  These  provi- 
sions are  for  the  plant  itself,  and  only  incidentally 
for  the  young  plantlet  which  it  is  to  produce.     To 


138  Natural  Theology. 

see  this  apparent  parental  care  most  fully  manifested, 
we  must  examine  the  seed.  In  it  is  the  germ  of  the 
young  plant.  But  that  germ  has  no  power  at  first 
over  earth  or  the  gases  of  the  air.  It  is  shut  out 
mainly  from  both.  For  this  helpless  state  a  pro- 
vision has  been  made.  Around  the  germ,  or  in 
some  way  connected  with  it,  the  parent  plant  gar- 
ners the  food  which  shall  support  the  germ,  till 
large  enough  to  provide  for  itself.  The  kernel  of 
grain  does  not  fill  till  its  germ  is  fertilized.  But 
when  that  is  done,  when  a  centre  of  life  is  formed, 
a  new  plant  is  there  ;  and  then  the  starch,  and  sugar, 
and  oil,  are  furnished  by  the  parent  stock  for  its 
support.  All  this  action  is  organic,  but  it  is  a  per- 
fect adaptation  of  means  to  ends.  The  machinery 
by  which  the  results  are  reached  is  as  complete  in  its 
structure  and  action  as  it  is  possible  for  us  to  con- 
ceive of.  This  provision  is  not  made  in  one  plant 
alone  ;  but,  in  some  form,  in  all. 

It  is  not  one  kind  of  material  that  is  provided, 
but  many.  The  work  is  not  done  by  one  method, 
but  by  methods  almost  numberless  ;  and  yet  every 
one  of  those  methods  commends  itself  most  fully  to 
our  judgment.  There  is  not  a  single  case  in  the 
thousands  that  we  could  improve  upon,  for  the  wel- 
fare of  the  plant.  We  cannot  believe  that  this  varied 
machinery  and  these  diverse  methods  result  from 
the  development  of  some  force  in  nature,  or  organ- 
izing principle.  We  cannot,  without  doing  violence 
to  our  own  mental  constitution,  regard  these  as  any 
other  than  the  provision  of  an  intelligent  Creator, 


Relation  of  Plants  to  Animals.  139 

whose  ways  are  perfect,  whose  wisdom  and  skill  are 
infinite. 

Between  the  animal  and  plant  there  is  a  still 
more  striking  series  of  adaptations  than  between 
either  of  them  and  the  inorganic  world.  They 
develop  in  opposite  directions  ;  so  that  the  more  per- 
fect the  plant  and  the  more  perfect  the  animal,  the 
further  removed  they  are  from  each  other  in  their 
structure  and  nature.  The  likeness  of  one  to  the 
other  is  only  one  of  remote  analogy.  And  yet  in 
their  most  perfect  state,  when  by  their  nature  they 
are  most  widely  separated  in  their  organic  structure 
and  in  their  conditions  of  life,  it  is  often  apparent 
that  they  were  constructed  with  direct  reference  to 
each  other.  The  first  relationship  which  we  notice 
is  the  perfect  balance  which  has  been  established 
between  them  in  their  effect  upon  the  air  by  their 
chemical  action.  Everything  thrown  off  from  an 
animal  as  waste  material  is  not  simply  waste  to  him, 
but  is  either  a  poison  to  the  air,  or  capable  of  soon 
becoming  so.  The  carbonic  acid  from  the  lungs, 
and  all  the  excretions  formed  by  the  waste  of  tis- 
sues, fill  the  air  with  poisons. 

But  upon  all  the  waste  materials  rejected  by  the 
animal  system,  the  plants  live.  They  sweep  the 
carbonic  acid  from  the  air  by  their  multitude  of 
leaves,  draw  it  from  the  soil  by  a  thousand  rootlets, 
and  gather  up  the  various  organic  compounds  as 
they  are  ready  to  change  to  poison,  and  in  the  won- 
derful laboratory  of  their  leafy  tissue,  they  unlock 
and  recombine  the  elements,  giving  back  to  us  in 


140  Natural  Theology. 

woody  fibre,  in  starch  and  sugar,  in  the  nutritious 
grains  and  delicious  fruits,  those  very  materials 
which  but  for  them  would  have  generated  deadly 
disease.  They  then  throw  back  from  the  leaves 
the  liberated  oxygen,  partly  at  least  in  that  active 
form  known  as  ozone,  in  which  it  is  most  efficient  as 
a  purifier  of  the  air.  Not  only  do  the  plants  thus 
stand  ready  to  save  animals  from  the  effect  of  their 
own  poisoning  influence  upon  the  air,  but  they  seem 
to  have  committed  to  them  the  task  of  protecting 
animal  life  from  the  poisons  produced  by  general 
decomposition,  both  by  gathering  up  the  poison  and 
also  by  some  of  them  showing  by  their  very  pre- 
sence the  existence  of  poisons,  and  thus  warning 
intelligent  man  of  his  danger. 

On  the  stagnant  pool  the  green  film  gathers,  to 
many  appearing  the  cause  of  disease,  but  in  reality 
the  safeguard  which  nature  has  prepared  ;  a  thin 
veil  with  chemical  power  which  she  has  spread 
over  such  places  to  gather  up  and  condense  a  por- 
tion of  the  poisons,  and  to  be  a  token  of  their  pre- 
sence. Around  our  southern  swamps  she  has  hung 
the  long  moss  in  rich  festoons  upon  the  trees,  and 
woven  the  thick  barrier  of  climbers,  through  both 
of  which  much  of  the  air  is  strained. 

The  plants  are  thus  more  than  a  sign  that  poi- 
sons are  generated  there  ;  they  feed  upon  and  de- 
stroy them. 

In  studying  these  relationships,  it  soon  becomes 
apparent  that  the  vegetable  kingdom  is  in  general 
subservient  to  the  animal.     The  lower  is  made  to 


Relation  of  Plants  to  Animals.  141 

serve  the  higher.  Plants  are  directly  or  indirectly 
the  support  of  all  animal  life.  No  animals,  unless 
it  be  some  of  microscopic  size,  have  power  to  live 
upon  inorganic  matter.  If  they  have  power  to 
assimilate  it  at  all,  they  have  no  power  to  assimilate 
a  sufficient  portion  to  sustain  life.  We  have  around 
us  an  abundance  of  all  the  elements  upon  which  we 
daily  live,  but  we  have  no  power  to  take  them  in 
their  common  form.  If  left  to  ourselves  we  must 
starve  in  the  midst  of  plenty.  The  plant  feeds 
upon  these  elements  or  their  inorganic  compounds. 
Plants  are  the  chemists,  constantly  working  for  the 
welfare  of  the  animal  kingdom,  bringing  the  ele- 
ments within  its  power.  If  plants  were  destroyed, 
animal  life  would  cease.  For,  though  carnivorous 
animals  may  destroy  others  of  the  same  kind,  yet  in 
the  end  we  come  back  to  those  animals  that  live 
upon  the  fruits  of  the  earth. 

There  are  some  curious  adaptations  in  the  func- 
tion of  certain  plants,  that  show  the  relationship  of 
one  kingdom  to  the  other,  and  this  general  subser- 
viency of  the  lower  to  the  higher  kingdom.  Certain 
insects  sting  the  oak  and  other  plants,  deposit  their 
eggs  in  their  stems  or  leaves,  and  then  leave  them 
there  for  the  young  to  be  developed.  In  some  cases 
the  young  insect  simply  bores  into  the  wood  and 
forms  a  dwelling  and  finds  food  for  himself.  The 
only  adaptation  here  seems  to  be  in  the  fitness  of 
the  material  in  which  the  egg  was  deposited  by  in- 
stinct, to  supply  the  wants  of  the  grub  while  active- 
ly providing  for  himself. 


142  Natural  TJieology. 

But  what  can  be  more  curious,  I  might  truly  say 
what  more  wonderful,  than  the  different  kinds  of 
oak-galls  or  oak-apples,  which  are  formed  by  the 
oak  wherever  the  egg  is  deposited ! 

When  the  egg  is  placed  in  its  tissues,  the  oak 
at  once  by  the  very  law  of  its  being  diverts  a 
portion  of  the  nutriment  elaborated  to  enlarge  its 
own  trunk  or  fill  its  fruit,  and  forms  a  curious  dwell- 
ing-place for  the  young  insect,  and  not  only  forms 
the  house  but  furnishes  food.  No  animal  by  in- 
stinct ever  fashioned  a  more  curious  structure  for  it- 
self or  its  young  than  the  unthinking  oak  forms  for 
the  egg  of  its  insect  enemy  that  has  been  thrust 
upon  it  for  protection  and  support.  And  these 
dwelling-places,  though  always  built  alike  on  the 
same  kind  of  tree  for  the  same  insect,  differ  accord- 
ing to  the  kind  of  insects  for  which  they  are  built. 
Other  plants  present  the  same  phenomenon,  and 
plants  entirely  unlike  botanically.  On  some  of  the 
rose-bushes,  these  insect-houses  are  built  and  orna- 
mented until  they  are  almost  as  beautiful  as  the 
opening  bud  itself.  The  stalk  of  the  golden-rod 
forms  a  large  ball,  in  the  centre  of  which  you  are 
sure  to  find  the  larval  insect  housed  and  provided 
for,  or  the  empty  tenement  from  which  he  has 
escaped  to  a  higher  form  of  life.  These  are  but 
single  examples  of  the  adaptation  of  plants  to  the 
wants  of  the  insect  tribe.  But  every  naturalist  will 
recall  a  great  number  of  kindred  cases,  in  which  the 
plant  responds  to  the  instinct  of  the  animal,  and 
completes,  even  at  its  own  expense  of  vital  energy, 


Fertilization  of  Plants.  143 

and  sometimes  in  a  most  elaborate  manner,  the 
machinery  that  is  needed  to  perfect  the  work  which 
the  instinct  of  the  animal  has  commenced.  What 
chance  should  lead  those  insects  to  deposit  their 
eggs  in  the  very  plants  that  are  so  ready  to  act  the 
part  of  nurses,  and  supply  by  special  provision  all 
the  wants  of  the  young  that  come  from  those  eggs  ? 
How  came  these  plants  of  different  kinds  to  respond 
in  these  various  ways  so  perfectly  to  the  need  of 
their  animal  foes  ?  We  wonder  at  the  provision 
which  they  make  for  their  own  young  plantlets,  we 
admire  their  general  adaptation  to  the  wants  of  the 
animal  kingdom  as  food  and  purifiers  of  the  air  ;  but 
when  we  see  them  building  on  one  unvarying  plan 
a  dwelling-place  for  the  insect  young,  and  storing  it 
with  food,  we  cannot  but  recognise  a  power  higher 
than  that  of  insect  or  plant — the  Creator  of  both,  who 
ordained  the  laws  of  their  being,  who  implanted  in- 
stinct in  the  one,  and  made  the  other  the  willing 
servant  of  the  higher  form  of  life. 

There  is  a  variety  of  contrivances  by  which  in- 
sects fertilize  plants.  The  structure  of  the  flower 
and  that  of  the  bee  are  often  adapted  to  each  other, 
as  much  as  the  key  to  the  lock.  The  honey  poured 
out  in  the  flower  attracts  the  insect,  and  in  his  en- 
deavors to  reach  the  precious  fluid  he  indirectly 
benefits  the  plant.  We  might  regard  this  as  a  mat- 
ter of  accident  were  there  but  a  single  instance  of 
it,  or  the  same  structure  for  all  flowers.  But  when 
we  see  thousands  of  species  of  plants  of  varied 
forms,  with  their  parts  so  arranged  as  to  secure  fer- 


144  Natural  Theology. 

tilization  by  the  aid  of  insects,  and  the  drop  of  honey 
placed  in  the  flower  to  attract  them,  we  not  only 
recognise  design,  but  in  a  provision  of  such  varied 
nature  the  idea  of  chance  is  excluded.  If  no  honey 
is  secreted  in  the  flower,  then  it  will  be  found  that 
means  have  been  provided  adequate  to  produce  fer- 
tilization without  the  aid  of  insects.  There  may  be 
an  abundance  of  pollen,  and  such  a  structure  that 
the  wind  can  do  the  work,  as  in  the  Indian-corn  and 
pine,  or  some  special  arrangement  of  the  parts  of 
the  flower  to  secure  the  result.  It  will  be  sufficient 
to  mention  a  few  cases  from  the  many,  of  structure 
having  reference  to  the  action  of  bees  in  the  pro- 
cess of  fertilization.  The  cucumber  and  squash  are 
good  examples.  These  vines  produce  two  kinds  of 
flowers — the  staminate  or  those  producing  the  pollen, 
and  the  pistillate  which  produce  the  fruit.  For  the 
growth  of  these  fruits  it  is  necessary  for  the  pollen 
to  be  transferred  from  one  flower  to  the  other.  As 
the  flowers  are  at  considerable  distance  from  each 
other,  and  protected  from  the  winds,  probably  not 
one  case  would  occur  in  a  hundred  flowers  of  the 
transference  of  pollen  without  the  aid  of  insects. 
These  plants  therefore  would  seem  defective  if  we 
consider  their  own  structure  alone.  If  left  to  their 
own  action,  the  species  would  die  out.  In  the  Sand- 
wich Islands,  where  no  bees  are  found,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  fertilize  the  large  squashes  by  the  labor  of 
men. 

Where  bees  are  found  the  work  is  completed  by 
them.     In  each  flower  upon  these  vines,  there  is  a 


Special  Structure.  145 

tiny  cup  of  honey,  carefully  covered,  but  the  cover 
so  thin  in  three  places  that  the  proboscis  of  the  bee 
pierces  it  with  ease.  While  gathering  the  sweets 
of  the  staminate  flower,  she  becomes  covered  with  the 
pollen  dust,  because  the  stamens  are  so  placed  in 
the  narrow  tube  of  the  flower  that  she  cannot  steal 
away  the  sweets  secreted  there  without  loading 
herself  with  the  fertilizing  powder.  When  now  she 
lights  in  the  pistillate  flower,  she  takes  its  honey  ; 
but  in  her  eagerness,  scatters  from  her  wings  and 
body  the  pollen  grains  upon  the  pistil,  and  thus 
secures  the  growth  of  the  fruit. 

When  we  examine  the  structure  of  these  flowers, 
their  relation  to  the  size  of  the  bee,  and  consider 
the  fact  that  the  honey,  of  no  use  directly  to  the 
plant,  but  a  draft  upon  its  energies,  is  ready  to 
attract  the  bee  when  the  pollen  is  fit  for  distribu- 
tion, we  see  a  provision  for  the  welfare  of  the  flower 
of  such  a  nature  as  to  secure  the  enjoyment  of  a 
sentient  being.  The  bee  is  not  only  provided  for 
by  following  her  instinct,  but  the  following  of  her 
instinct  is  essential  to  the  plant.  They  were  both 
fashioned  with  reference  to  each  other.  In  our 
pretty  spring  flower,  the  forget-me-not  (Olde?ilan- 
dia  coerulea),  we  find  a  curious  relation  of  the  seed- 
producing  organs.  The  stamens  are  always  either 
much  longer  or  much  shorter  than  the  pistil.  When 
the  bee  visits  a  flower  with  long  stamens  the  pollen 
is  attached  to  the  base  of  the  proboscis  ;  when  he 
visits  a  flower  with  long  pistil,  this  pollen  comes  in 
:ontact  with  its  stigma,  and  at  the  same  time  the 

7 


146  Natural  Theology. 

middle  of  her  proboscis  is  becoming  covered  with 
the  pollen  from  its  short  stamens,  to  fertilize  the 
plants  with  short  pistils.  But  the  most  remarkable 
cases  of  special  adaptation  are  found  among  the 
orchids  which  have  been  so  carefully  studied  by 
Darwin.  Many  of  the  species  cannot  possibly  fer- 
tilize themselves,  and  if  shut  out  from  insects,  fail 
to  produce  seed.  One,  the  Orchis  pyramidalis,  may 
be  taken  as  a  type  of  many  in  its  special  adaptations 
by  which  its  structure  and  functions,  the  structure 
and  instinct  of  the  insect,  are  all  combined  to  pro- 
duce the  needed  result.  The  structure  of  the  flower 
is  such  that  the  proboscis  must  enter  in  a  given  di- 
rection ;  this  brings  it  in  contact  with  the  packets 
of  pollen  that  adhere  to  it  by  a  viscid  fluid,  that  has 
the  chemical  property  of  rapidly  becoming  solid 
when  exposed  to  the  air.  The  packets  of  pollen 
bend  over  as  they  dry,  so  as  to  take  the  exact  posi- 
tion they  ought  to  take  to  strike  the  stigmas  of  the 
next  flower.  Those  stigmas  are  covered  with  a 
viscid  fluid  to  which  the  grains  of  pollen  adhere,  and 
the  work  is  done.  What  a  complicated  arrangement 
is  here,  and  yet  how  perfect  the  result !  First,  there 
is  the  form  of  the  flower  that  guides  the  proboscis 
aright ;  second,  the  position  of  the  pollen  packets  all 
ready  to  be  withdrawn  ;  third,  the  glue  by  which 
they  are  firmly  fixed  to  the  proboscis  ;  fourth,  their 
hygrometric  action,  by  which  in  drying  they  bend 
just  far  enough  to  bring  each  one  in  contact  \Vith 
the  two  stigmas  of  the  next  flower  the  insect  visits  ; 
and  lastly,  the  glue  upon  the  stigmas  sufficiently 


Conclusion.  \AJ 

strong  to  rupture  the  packets  of  pollen  and  hold 
sufficient  of  it  to  fertilize  the  seed. 

But  it  may  be  asked,  what  need  of  all  this  machi- 
nery ?  Would  not  as  great  wisdom  as  well  as  de- 
sign be  manifested  by  a  more  simple  contrivance, 
such  as  is  found  in  other  flowers  that  fertilize  them- 
selves ?  Among  other  answers  which  might  be 
given,  is  this  :  It  is  undoubtedly  a  means  of  prevent- 
ing the  formation  of  varieties  in  such  plants  in  a 
wild  state,  and  thus  secures  distinctness  of  specific 
forms.  The  design  manifested  in  all  that  relates  to 
varieties  will  demand  our  attention  before  these  lec- 
tures are  closed.  We  have  now  endeavored  simply 
to  show  that  a  result  is  reached  in  a  manner  im- 
plying wisdom  and  skill  in  the  adaptation  of  means 
to  ends. 


LECTURE  VI. 

PRODUCTION    OF     VARIETIES    AND    THEIR   FINAL 
CAUSE 

Origin  of  species. — May  be  varied  for  a  wise  purpose. — Liv- 
ing and  fossil  forms,  parts  of  one  whole. — Four  plans  of 
structure. —  The  rocks  the  true  record. — May  be  mistrans- 
lated, but  not  changed. — Unity  of  plan  in  the  Divine 
mind. — Changes  that  favor  development  theory. — Quota- 
tion from  Darwin. —  Variation  considered  historically .— 
For  a  definite  purpose. — Adapts  species  to  wide  geographi- 
cal range. —  To  man. — Definition  of  varieties. — Cause  not 
known. — Quotation  from  Gray. — Final  cause. — Reference 
to  7nan. — Beauty  of  crystal.— Difference  in  kingdom  of 
life.—  Organs  of  plants. — Anthers.— Petals.— Double  fow- 
ers. — Propagation  of  double  plants.  —  Fleshy  fruits.  — 
Idea  of  beauty  in  some  plants.— Of  fruit  in  others.— Two 
series  according  to  lines  of  development. — Corn. -Sugar- 
cane.— Potato. — Tomato. — Indications  in  wild  plants. — 
Exceptions. — Some  plants  for  a  double  purpose.—  Vegeta- 
ble kingdom  for  the  animal. — Appears  prima?'ily  for  it- 
self— Multitude  of  germs.— Grains  of  wheat  represent 
food  and  plant  life.—  Use  of  soft  fruits.  —Plants  and  ani- 
mals constructed  for  man  as  an  intellectual  being. — In- 
crease of  beauty  not  for  the  plant. —  Varieties  offer  condi- 
tion of  continual  progress. — Development  theory  not  Athe- 
istic.— Incurable  scepticism.— Geology  must  explain  origin 
of  species.  —  Law  of  variation,  evidence  of  design  and 
wisdom. 

In  our  last  lecture  we  considered  some  of  the  re- 
lations of  plants  to  the  world — the  varied  structure 
and  nature  by  which  different  kinds  are  adapted  to 
soil,  to  climate,  and  to  our  place  in  the  solar  system. 
It  was  also  shown  that  plants  have  an  obvious  rela- 


Varieties.  1 49 

tion  to  the  animal  kingdom,  not  only  in  counteract- 
ing the  action  of  animals  on  the  air  and  in  furnish- 
ing them  with  food,  but  also  in  their  adaptation  to 
the  structure  and  instinct  of  animals,  completing,  as 
they  often  do  by  their  own  growth,  in  a  specific 
manner,  the  work  which  the  instinct  of  the  animal 
commenced.  It  was  shown  that  the  structure  of  the 
insect,  its  instinct,  and  the  nature  of  the  plant  growth, 
are  all  three  often  needed  to  complete  the  relation  of 
the  animal  and  the  plant  to  the  world,  so  that  certain 
species  in  both  kingdoms  may  be  preserved. 

There  still  remains  another  characteristic  of  or- 
ganic beings  that  has  given  rise  to  much  discussion 
among  scientific  men.  I  refer  to  the  production  of 
varieties,  or  different  kinds,  from  the  same  stock. 
The  fact  is  not  only  acknowledged,  but  modified 
forms  are  springing  up  almost  every  year  in  the 
animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms.  We  do  not  pro- 
pose to  discuss  the  scientific  tests  that  are  proposed 
for  distinguishing  species  from  varieties  ;  but  we 
wish  to  show  that  the  power  of  producing  varieties 
is  one  of  the  means  by  which  organic  beings  are 
better  fitted  to  the  world,  and  to  the  wants  of  man, 
and  that  in  the  nature  and  final  results  of  many  of 
these  changes  it  becomes  apparent  that  the  wis- 
dom of  their  production  cannot  be  vindicated  on 
any  other  supposition  than  that  they  were  made 
ivith  direct  reference  to  man.  This  might  involve 
the  whole  discussion  of  what  constitutes  a  species, 
and  how  species  come  into  existence.  We  have  not 
time  to  enter  fully  upon  that  discussion.    As  to  the 


150  Natwal  Theology. 

origin  and  permanence  of  species,  the  best  natu- 
ralists are  not  agreed.  We  accept  the  theory  of  a 
distinct  creation  for  each  species.  Each  species 
thus  represents  a  distinct  creative  idea.  The  species 
may  be  varied  for  a  wise  purpose,  without  losing  its 
essential  characteristics.  Thousands  of  new  kinds 
of  apples  have  been  produced  from  the  same  stock, 
but  no  fruit  was  ever  raised  from  an  apple-seed  that 
would  be  mistaken  for  a  peach  or  pear  ;  so  that  there 
has  not  been  shown  to  be  the  slightest  tendency 
in  the  apple  to  change  to  any  other  kind  of  fruit. 
This  is  what  we  mean  by  saying  that  the  creative 
idea  is  never  lost  amid  all  the  changes  in  the  pro- 
duction of  varieties.  We  do  not  regard  the  doctrine 
of  the  distinct  creation  of  each  species  as  essential  at 
all  to  the  argument  for  the  existence  and  attributes 
of  God.  We  accept  it  on  purely  scientific  grounds, 
believing  fully  that  science  and  the  Bible  here  agree. 
But  we  must  acknowledge,  whether  the  species  have 
come  into  existence  by  direct  creation  or  by  sec- 
ondary causes,  that  there  is  a  systematic  connection 
running  back  through  all  the  geologic  ages.  The 
animals  in  the  rocks  belong  to  strange  forms  in- 
deed ;  but  in  all  their  strangeness,  they  yet  show 
connection  with  those  now  living.  But  it  is  the 
same  sort  of  connection  we  should  expect  to  find 
among  the  creations  of  the  same  Being,  who  with 
wisdom  and  skill  varied  His  work  only  according  to 
the  conditions  in  which  it  was  to  be  placed.  He 
has  indeed  His  own  distinct  types  running  back  as 
far  as  animal  life  is  found.     And  the  ancient  tribes 


Plans  of  Structure.  15 1 

are  so  allied  to  those  now  existing  that  the  fossil 
and  living  animals  make  one  grand  whole,  the  lines 
of  the  great  plans  of  creation  never  crossing.  Each 
plan  is  like  an  order  in  architecture,  giving  diversity 
in  execution,  but  never  entirely  losing  its  identity. 
The  marked  difference  in  the  plan  of  structure  in 
the  four  great  divisions  of  animal  life,  in  which  plan 
can  be  fully  recognised,  is  a  great  point  against 
development  theories  ;  and  even  in  the  same  division 
it  seems  impossible  that  all  the  diverse  forms  should 
have  originated  from  one.  Who  can  persuade  him- 
self that  all  the  different  kinds  of  shells  that  can  be 
found  upon  any  beach,  were  derived  from  the  same 
stock  ?  But  it  is  said  that  they  shade  into  each 
other,  and  so  attempts  have  been  made  to  ignore  all 
dividing  lines  as  drawn  in  nature.  We  acknow- 
ledge the  existence  of  the  intermediate  forms,  and 
we  admit  that  varieties  have  been  mistaken  for 
species  ;  but  notwithstanding  this,  as  science  ad- 
vances," distinct  plans  of  structure  stand  out  in 
clearer  light,  and  we  believe  that  distinct  plans  of 
creation  and  distinct  creations  of  species  will  be 
recognised  as  the  teachings  of  the  rocks  of  the  earth. 
They  are  the  great  historic  record  of  the  change  in 
animal  life  ;  to  them  must  be  our  final  appeal.  And 
we  feel  thankful  for  such  a  book  as  this  ;  a  book 
which  will  be  more  and  more  read  while  the  world 
stands — a  book  which  no  man  ever  has  altered,  and 
no  man  can  alter.  He  may  mistranslate  it ;  but  the 
text  remains  unchanged,  and  coming  generations 
may  read  for  themselves. 


152  Natural  Theology. 

Whatever  theory  we  may  adopt  as  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  species  on  the  globe,  we  must  all  acknowledge 
the  same  order  of  succession  in  animal  life.  From 
this  there  is  no  escape  ;  for  that  grand  old  volume, 
the  earth,  is  full  of  these  forms,  varied  as  the  strata 
of  rocks  rise  one  above  another.  And  what  a  grand 
history  is  here  .recorded  of  creative  power !  What 
wisdom,  skill,  and  unity  of  plan,  are  revealed  !  The 
mountain-tops  and  the  deep  valleys  unite  in  declar- 
ing that  the  march  of  animal  and  vegetable  life, 
through  all  the  vast  ages  of  rock  formation,  was 
under  the  guidance  and  power  of  a  Being  who  saw 
the  end  from  the  beginning,  and  moved  on  the  grand 
succession,  from  the  lowest  forms  of  the  Silurian 
age  to  the  creation  of  man.  We  believe  this  unity 
of  plan  was  in  the  Divine  Mind  alone,  and  that  the 
varied  tribes  were  the  direct  creation  of  His  hand. 

While  we  believe  this  to  be  the  teaching  of  the 
rocks,  it  is  freely  acknowledged  that  there  are 
changes  in  organic  beings  that  favor  the  development 
theory.  Distinct  kinds  of  plants  and  animals  have 
appeared  within  the  historic  period.  In  fact,  new 
kinds  may  appear  every  year,  as  is  well  understood 
by  every  intelligent  gardener.  These  new  varieties 
are  regarded  by  some  as  incipient  species,  which  in 
time  will  become  permanent  in  form  and  take  their 
place  among  those  that  are  now  recognised  as  spe- 
cies. And  since  we  find  so  many  kinds  of  plants 
originating  from  the  same  stock,  all  our  apples,  for 
example,  coming  undoubtedly  from  one  kind,  what 
might  we  not  expect  as  the  result  of  this  variation 


Origin  of  Species.  153 

continued  not  only  through  the  thousands  of  years 
that  history  records,  but  for  the  unmeasured  ages 
of  geologic  time  ?  If  greenings,  and  russets,  and 
Baldwins,  and  hundreds  of  other  kinds,  can  in  a  few 
years  be  originated  from  one  kind,  why  might  it 
not  be  found,  if  we  could  go  back  millions  of  years, 
that  oaks,  and  pines,  and  elms,  and  peaches,  all  came 
from  the  same  stock  ?  This  is  the  question  which  a 
real  believer  in  development  propounds  to  us.  We 
see'  similar  changes  constantly  going  on  in  animals 
as  well  as  in  plants. 

How  very  unlike  the  different  breeds  of  horses, 
all  springing  from  the  same  stock  !  Now  since  the 
different  breeds  of  horses  have,  within  comparatively 
few  years,  sprung  from  the  same  stock,  if  we  could 
go  back  millions  of  years,  why  might  we  not  find 
that  horses  and  cattle  and  beasts  of  every  kind 
sprang  from  the  same  stock  ? 

This  is  the  second  question  which  the  real  deve- 
lopment theorist  puts  to  us  ;  and  then  to  be  consis- 
tent, he  adds  :  since  man  as  a  physical  being  is  an 
animal,  if  we  go  back  far  enough,  why  may  we  not 
find  him  to  be  a  branch  from  the  same  stock,  mak- 
ing his  way  up  by  development  through  the  line  of 
monkeys  to  his  present  high  position  ?  And  that 
we  may  know  just  how  it  is  supposed  this  variation 
may  be  brought  about,  I  quote  from  Darwin,  the 
great  champion  of  the  modern  development  theory: 

"  In  North  America,  the  black  bear  was  seen  by 
Hearne  swimming  for  hours,  with  widely  open 
mouth,  thus  catching,  like  the  whale,  insects  in  the 

7* 


154  Natural  Theology. 

water.  Even  in  so  extreme  a  case  as  this,  if  the  sup- 
ply of  insects  were  constant,  and  if  better  adapted 
competitors  did  not  already  exist  in  the  country,  I 
can  see  no  difficulty  in  a  race  of  bears  being  ren- 
dered by  natural  selection  more  and  more  aquatic 
in  their  structure  and  habits,  with  larger  and  larger 
mouths,  till  a  creature  was  produced  as  monstrous 
as  the  whale." 

We  have  in  this  extract  a  good  illustration  of  the 
changes  in  structure  which  it  is  claimed  can  be 
produced  by  use  of  organs  or  by  habits  of  the  animal. 

The  principle  of  variation  of  species  and  natural 
selection,  say  the  development  theorists,  is  enough 
to  account  for  all  the  distinctions  we  observe  in 
those  kinds  that  are  recognised  as  species.  Now 
let  us  see  how  this  fact  of  variation  stands  histori- 
cally. When  we  point  to  the  rocks  as  proof  of  dis- 
tinct creations,  we  are  told  that  this  record  is  only 
imperfectly  read  as  yet,  and  so  the  transition  forms 
have  not  been  found.  When  we  appeal  to  living 
forms,  we  defy  them  to  produce  a  single  instance  in 
which  anything  but  an  apple  has  been  raised  from 
an  apple-seed.  Untold  kinds  of  apples  have  been 
pro'duced,  but  we  wait  for  the  first  fruit  to  be  raised 
from  an  apple-seed  that  the  most  unlearned  in 
botany  would  not  know  to  be  apple.  The  same 
constancy  of  species  is  found  in  all  our  fruits  that 
vary  most.  We  see  by  this  that  in  all  the  variation, 
there  are  certain  bounds  beyond  which  it  cannot  go. 
It  never  blots  out  the  creative  idea  in  the  plant. 
And  the  same  is  true  of  animals.     Has  there,  in  all 


Variation.  I  5  5 

the  variations,  been  a  single  instance  where  the 
type  of  the  animal  was  really  changed  ?  Would  not 
all  horses  be  recognised  as  horses  the  world  over  ? 
We  find  in  all  these  cases  certain  distinct  lines  be- 
yond which  variation  never  goes.  When  it  is  said 
that  the  horse  and  the  ox  may  have  come  from  the 
same  stock,  not  a  particle  of  historical  proof  can  be 
given  in  support  of  it.  And  when  it  is  said  that 
man  descended  from  the  apes,  it  is  a  mere  gratui- 
tous lowering  of  human  dignity. 

Now  the  fact  of  variation  being  granted,  we  be- 
lieve it  can  be  shown  that  it  is  not  accidental,  but 
that  it  works  for  a  definite  purpose  and  within  pre- 
scribed limits.  As  this  variation  among  organic 
beings  is  a  strong  point  with  those  who  would  either 
theorize  God  out  of  the  universe,  or  rob  Him  of  the 
character  of  a  Creator,  except  as  one  acting  through 
secondary  agencies,  creating  thousands  of  defective 
forms  to  die  out,  for  one  perfect  enough  to  hold  its 
place  in  the  world  ;  in  fine,  of  those  who  would  in  any 
way  ignore  the  Bible  account  of  creation — we  shall 
be  justified  in  treating  the  final  cause  of  varieties  at 
considerable  length.  And  in  doing  this  we  shall 
have  to  introduce  other  material,  that  we  may  show 
how  variation  harmonizes  with  other  characteristics 
to  better  fit  the  species  for  the  world.  If  species 
were  the  direct  creation  of  a  wise  Being,  as  the  Bi- 
ble declares,  we  should  expect  to  find  them  endowed 
with  properties  fitting  them  to  be  of  most  use  in  the 
world,  and  that  those  most  needful  for  man  would 
have  powers  and  capabilities  adapting  them  to  his 


156  Natural  Theology. 

nature  as  a  physical  and  intellectual  being.  We 
think  it  can  be  shown  that  the  power  of  producing 
varieties  is  the  great  means  of  adapting  species  to  a 
wide  geographical  range,  and  to  the  wants  of  man 
as  he  increases  in  civilization  and  capacity  to  enjoy 
the  beautiful  and  good.  If  this  can  be  shown,  we 
take  the  production  of  varieties  from  the  category 
of  chance,  and  show  in  it  the  highest,  far-reaching, 
wise,  and  benevolent  design. 

Accepting,  then,  the  common  definition  of  varie- 
ties in  the  organic  kingdom,  we  regard  them  as 
forms  produced  by  the  variation  of  species.  The 
cause  of  this  variation  has  never  been  explained.  It 
was  formerly  referred  to  soil  and  climate,  but  pro- 
bably the  only  account  that  will  ever  be  given  is  : 
such  is  the  nature  of  species. 

It  is  a  law  written  on  the  plant  and  animal,  that 
in  their  development  there  shall  be  variation  from 
the  original  stock,  but  only  in  certain  directions. 
On  this  point  we  quote  the  language  of  a  distin- 
guished scientific  man*  who  has  lately  written  much 
upon  this  subject.  It  would  be  difficult  to  find  in 
the  writings  of  any  other  author  all  that  we  really 
know  on  this  subject  condensed  into  so  few  words : 

"  The  former  [variation]  has  never  yet  been  shown 
to  have  its  cause  in  external  influences,  nor  to  occur 
at  random.  As  we  have  elsewhere  insisted,  if  not 
inexplicable,  it  has  never  been  explained  ;  all  that 
we  can  yet  say  is,  that  plants  and  animals  are  prone 
to  vary,  and  that  some  conditions  favor  variation." 

*  Professor  Asa  Gray. 


Final  Cause.  157 

We  thus  confess  our  ignorance  of  the  natural 
causes  that  produce  variation.  We  propose  to  dis- 
cuss its  fijial  cause.  This  implies  that  there  is  in 
it  a  purpose.  If  there  is  in  the  variation  of  objects 
in  nature,  a  purpose,  that  purpose  must  have  rela- 
tion to  the  objects  themselves,  or  to  some  other  be- 
ings connected  with  them  or  in  some  way  related 
to  them.  In  all  arrangements  merely  for  the  good 
of  the  object  itself,  final  cause  or  purpose  may  be 
denied.  It  may  be  said  that  the  thing  exists  be- 
cause it  happens  to  have  a  constitution  fitting  it  for 
the  mode  of  existence  in  which  we  find  it.  We 
shall  therefore  confine  ourselves,  in  this  discussion, 
mainly  to  those  contrivances  that  seem  to  have  rela- 
tion to  something  out  of  the  object  in  which  they 
are  found.  But  our  special  aim  will  be  to  show  that 
all  variation  from  original  forms  in  the  animal  and 
vegetable  kingdoms,  especially  in  the  higher  kinds, 
is  not  in  general  for  the  good  of  the  object  in  which 
it  occurs,  but  for  the  good  of  other  beings  in  some 
way  related  to  it.  We  think  it  will  readily  appear 
to  any  careful  observer,  that  much  of  the  variation 
in  both  of  these  kingdoms  has  special  reference  to 
man  as  an  intellectual  and  moral  being.  But  we 
shall,  for  want  of  time,  confine  our  present  exami- 
nation mainly  to  plants.  It  would  be  most  natural, 
perhaps,  to  commence  with  the  mineral  kingdom, 
had  we  time  for  a  full  discussion  of  the  subject. 

And  we  might  inquire  :  For  what  end  is  the  beauty 
of  the  crystal  ?  Certainly  it  is  not  for  the  crystal 
itself.     We  have  great  beauty  in  the  primary  crys- 


158  Natural  Theology. 

tal.  But  the  law  of  secondary  forms  adds  new 
beauty,  by  the  variety  it  gives  in  modifying,  with 
mathematical  exactness,  the  faces  and  angles  of  the 
primary.  We  may  be  told  that  there  is  no  design 
in  all  this  arrangement  of  matter.  It  is  so,  is  all 
that  we  can  say.  Because  we  admire  the  beauty  of 
the  crystal,  and  wonder  at  this  law  by  which  its 
beauty  is  increased,  we  are  told  that  we  are  not  to 
believe  that  the  original  beauty  of  the  gem,  or  that 
the  law  of  variation,  was  made  for  us,  or  with  any 
reference  to  us.  Nor  are  we  to  believe,  necessarily, 
that  they  were  made  at  all.  They  are — they  always 
have  been  ;  and  they  would  be  the  same  they  now 
are,  were  there  no  intelligent  being  in  the  universe 
to  behold  them.  We  may  believe  that  they  have  a 
purpose,  or  not.  If  one  doubts  it,  there  is  certainly 
little  room  for  argument.  When  the  facts  are  stated, 
different  minds  will  be  differently  affected  by  them, 
and  argument  will  have  little  effect  upon  either 
class. 

But  when  we  study  the  kingdom  of  life,  the  facts 
that  meet  us  are  entirely  different  in  kind.  There 
is  here  a  succession  of  beings,  descending  one  from 
another  ;  there  is  a  complicated  machinery  by 
which  the  individual  is  built  up  and  preserved.  It 
is  certainly  a  legitimate  inquiry  :  For  what  purpose 
is  each  part  of  these  beings  ?  For  what  purpose — 
or,  if  any  object  to  this  word — for  what  use  are  the 
various  organs  of  the  plant  ?  To  answer  this  ques* 
tion  is  the  work  of  the  botanist.  He  examines  the 
root,  the  stem,  the  leaf,  the  flower,  and  the  fruit. 


Use  of  Petals.  159 

In  this  investigation  he  has  been  successful,  so  that 
most  of  the  plant  machinery  is  now  understood  in 
its  relations  to  the  individual  plant,  and  to  the  suc- 
cession of  plants. 

Who  doubts  the  use  of  the  root  and  leaf  in  taking 
up  and  elaborating  nutriment  for  the  plant  ?  Who 
doubts  the  use  of  the  anther  in  producing  pollen, 
or  of  the  pollen  grains  in  fertilizing  the  seed?  Al- 
though we  may  be  uncertain  about  the  use  of 
some  parts,  it  does  not  affect  the  certainty  of  our 
knowledge  respecting  those  we  have  mentioned. 
But  these  are  for  the  use  of  the  plant.  Let  us  push 
our  inquiries  further,  and  see  if  we  can  find  in  the 
structure  of  the  plant  any  contrivances,  or  in  its 
development  any  variations  of  form,  not  required 
by  the  economy  of  the  plant  itself.  We  omit  for 
the  present  all  discussion  as  to  the  method  by 
which  these  were  produced,  or  how  they  came  to 
be  ;  but  simply  inquire  if  there  are  such.  For  what 
purpose  are  the  petals  of  the  flower,  the  crown  of 
beauty  to  the  plant  ?  Certainly  they  are  not  abso- 
lutely essential  in  the  production  of  seed,  for  many 
plants  are  without  them.  And  if  in  any  case  they 
are  deemed  essential,  certainly  the  beautiful  pattern 
of  the  petal,  its  numberless  modifications  and  deli- 
cate tints,  adjusted  with  masterly  accuracy,  are  not 
necessary  parts  in  the  economy  of  plants.  Of  what 
use  to  the  plant  is  that  row  of  sterile  flowers  that 
adorns  so  many  of  our  composite?,  the  Rudbeckias, 
and  helianths  ;  or  that  curious  circle  of  sterile 
flowers    bordering   the   cymes   of  hydrangeas   and 


160  Natural  Theology. 

some  of  our  viburnums  ?  We  may  be  told  that 
they  have  no  use,  or  that  these  apparently  useless 
parts  will  at  some  time  be  found  to  be  of  importance 
in  the  economy  of  the  plant,  aiding  directly  or  indi- 
rectly in  the  perpetuation  of  the  species,  as  the 
honey  of  the  plant  attracts  bees,  and  thus  secures 
the  continuance  of  the  species  by  the  fertilization 
of  the  seed.  We  will  go  one  step  further,  then,  and 
ask  :  What  end  is  subserved  by  double  flowers  ? 
All  agree  that  one  use  of  the  flower  is  to  produce 
seed.  But  the  perfectly  double  flower  loses  the 
organs  of  reproduction.  The  rose  unfolds  its 
stamens  and  pistils  into  petals,  and  thus  gains  in 
beauty,  till  it  becomes  the  perfection  of  a  flower, 
but  always  at  the  expense  of  seed.  What  use,  in 
the  economy  of  the  plant,  does  the  flower  subserve 
when  it  can  no  longer  produce  seed  ?  It  does  not 
perpetuate  the  species,  so  that  this  variation  cannot 
be  for  the  production  of  new  species,  and  more  than 
this,  it  is  a  draft  upon  the  nutriment  that  would 
otherwise  go  to  build  up  the  plant  that  produces  it. 
By  becoming  double,  the  flower  has  ceased  to  be  of 
advantage  either  to  the  species  or  the  individual 
plant.  But  does  nature  thus  defeat  her  own  ends, 
and  provide  for  the  destruction  of  some  species  by 
the  very  law  of  their  growth  ?  Not  at  all.  In 
every  plant,  which  by  cultivation  is  so  far  changed 
as  to  lose  the  power  of  producing  seed,  there  is  some 
other  provision  for  the  propagation  of  the  plant,  as 
by  slips,  by  grafting,  by  bulblets,  and  the  like. 
Nature  seems  thus  to  provide,  in  the  structure  of 


Apple  and  Peach.  161 

other  parts  of  these  plants,  for  the  development  of 
their  flowers  in  the  line  of  beauty  at  the  expense 
of  seed.  And  when  annual  plants  become  truly 
double,  they  at  the  same  time  become  perennial. 

Let  us  examine  another  group  of  plants,  belong- 
ing to  the  same  natural  order  as  the  rose.  For 
what  purpose  is  the  fruit  of  the  apple-tree,  the  pear- 
tree,  and  the  peach  ?  Their  seed  is  evidently  for 
the  propagation  of  the  species.  But  still  we  ask  : 
For  what  purpose  are  the  apple  and  the  peach  ?  The 
germ  is  in  the  seed  or  within  the  stone.  The 
economy  of  the  plant  does  not  require  that  the 
covering  of  the  seeds  should  be  increased  in  quan- 
tity or  heightened  in  flavor,  for  the  seeds  come 
to  their  fullest  development  in  the  unchanged  native 
fruit.  If  the  improvement  in  size  and  flavor  is  not 
for  the  seed,  it  has  no  relation  to  the  plant.  And 
probably  no  candid  person  will  contend  that  the 
change  in  cultivated  fruits  which  renders  them  more 
valuable  to  man,  has  any  more  relation  to  the  wants 
of  the  individual  plant,  or  of  the  species,  than  the 
milk  of  the  mother  has  to  her  own  wants.  If  this 
change  has  any  purpose  at  all,  it  is  for  something 
outside  of  the  plant.  The  seed  is  not  for  the  plant 
that  produces  it,  but  for  the  species. 

The  change  of  covering,  as  already  indicated,  is 
of  no  advantage  to  the  seed.  Its  increase  in  size  is 
therefore  a  draft  upon  the  tree,  without  having  any 
relation  to  the  species.  So  far  as  the  economy  of 
the  plant  is  concerned,  it  is  a  mistake.  The  machi- 
nery is  out  of  order.    There  is  an  absolute  throwing 


1 62  Natural  Theology. 

away  of  material  and  of  vital  energy,  and  this  goes 
on,  as  in  some  oranges  and  grapes,  till  no  seeds  are 
formed. 

We  are  now  prepared  to  introduce  and  illustrate 
certain  propositions  which  seem  warranted  by  plant 
development. 

1.  In  some  plants  the  idea  of  beauty  is  the  most 
prominent  idea,  inasmuch  as  under  the  best  cultiva- 
tion the  variation  of  these  plants  is  always  in  the  line 
of  beauty  either  in  the  flower  or  leaf. 

The  beauty  of  the  flower,  the  rose,  for  example, 
often  increases  at  the  expense  of  the  reproductive 
organs,  until  the  power  of  producing  seed  is  lost. 

2.  In  other  plants  utility  of  fruit  is  the  prominent 
idea,  as  in  the  apple  and  the  peach.  Such  plants, 
under  careful  cultivation,  produce  larger  and  more 
delicious  kinds  of  fruit,  without  increase  of  beauty 
in  the  flower. 

3.  From  these  two  propositions  another  follows  : 
that  the  plants  best  known  to  us  from  long-con- 
tinued cultivation  can  be  readily  divided  into  two 
great  series,  without  reference  to  their  botanical 
relationship,  but  according  to  their  lines  of  develop- 
ment. In  one  series  utility  of  fruit  is  the  prominent 
idea  ;  and  in  the  other,  beauty  of  flower  or  leaf ;  as 
under  the  best  cultivation  these  series  are  developed 
in  these  two  directions  respectively. 

The  idea  of  utility  is  not  manifested  by  fruit  alone. 
The  sugar  of  the  sugar-cane  constitutes  its  utility, 
while  that  of  the  Indian-corn  lies  in  its  grain.  These 
plants,  so  nearly  allied  botanically,  are  developed  in 


Changes  Indicated.  163 

these  two  directions,  according  to  the  leading  idea 
in  their  products.  The  apple  and  the  rose  already 
referred  to,  belong  to  the  same  botanical  family ;  yet 
they  are  developed,  in  nearly  all  their  variations,  in 
opposite  directions. 

The  potato  has  for  its  leading  idea  the  formation 
of  underground  stems  or  tubers  ;  while  its  brother, 
the  tomato,  has  for  its  idea  the  production  of  a  fruit 
corresponding  in  structure  to  the  potato-grape. 
They  show  this  in  all  their  variations.  In  the  pine- 
tree  the  leading  idea  is  wood,  and  in  the  mint,  essen- 
tial oil.  But  in  such  plants  as  do  not  readily  pro- 
duce varieties  the  line  of  development  is  determined 
with  difficulty. 

4.  Some  plants  in  their  native  state  give  indica- 
tions of  the  kind  of  change  likely  to  take  place  in 
them  by  cultivation.  The  rose,  for  example,  by  its 
large  corolla  in  comparison  with  the  fruit,  shows  that 
change  of  flower  is  most  likely  to  take  place.  In  the 
apple,  the  large,  fleshy  fruit  indicates  a  tendency  to 
variation  and  improvement  in  that  direction.  The 
viburnum  opulns,  the  Jiydra7igea,  and  other  plants,  by 
the  circle  of  sterile  flowers,  much  larger  and  more 
beautiful  than  the  fertile  flowers,  indicate  change  in 
the  direction  of  beauty.  Those  beautiful  circles  of 
sterile  flowers  in  some  of  our  native  shrubs,  and  the 
neutral  rays  of  some  of  our  composite,  may  be  re- 
garded as  ornaments,  rather  than  as  of  use  in  the 
economy  of  the  plant.  When,  therefore,  a  new  plant 
is  brought  under  cultivation,  there  is  little  doubt  in 
what  direction  it  will  vary,  if  at  all.     The  increase 


164  Natural  Theology 

of  beauty  in  the  flower  by  doubling,  and  the  increase 
of  the  fruit  in  size,  beauty,  and  flavor,  are  of  no  ad- 
vantage to  the  fruit  itself,  nor  to  the  species  ;  but 
in  some  cases  they  are  a  draft  upon  the  plant  for  no 
purpose  in  its  own  economy. 

5.  Those  plants  that  by  variation  lose  the  power 
of  producing  seed,  can  always  be  propagated  in 
other  ways,  as  by  slips  or  bulbs.  Nature,  as  though 
careful  for  the  preservation  of  the  species,  never 
allows  any  plant,  by  its  own  law  of  growth,  to  lose 
the  power  of  producing  seed,  unless  she  has  given 
to  it  means  other  than  the  seed,  for  the  perpetuation 
of  its  kind. 

6.  Variation  is  most  common  and  rapid  in  those 
plants  which  are  most  useful  to  man  for  cultivation, 
and  which  must  go  with  him  over  most  of  the  earth. 
It  may  be  said  that  they  are  most  useful  because 
they  happen  to  vary ;  but  their  readiness  to  vary, 
certainly  was  not  the  cause  of  their  first  cultivation. 
They  were  selected  for  some  particular  good,  as  for 
fruit,  or  for  beauty  of  flower,  or  leaf,  or  some  other 
desirable  property.  The  characteristic  for  which 
each  one  was  first  selected,  is  the  leading  idea  of  the 
plant ;  and  in  that  direction  all  its  variations  under 
cultivation  have  tended.  The  rose,  in  all  its  vari- 
eties, is  to-day  cultivated  for  the  same  reason  for 
which  it  was  first  cultivated,  for  its  beauty ;  the 
apple-tree  for  its  fruit,  the  sugar-cane  for  its  sweet- 
ness, and  so  on,  through  the  list  of  cultivated  plants. 
We  might  multiply  propositions  and  examples,  if  our 
space  allowed.     As  they  would  not  differ  in  kind, 


Apparent  Exceptions.  165 

they  are  not  needed  for  the  argument.  Apparent 
exceptions  to  the  propositions  already  stated  may 
undoubtedly  be  pointed  out,  for  it  is  well  understood 
by  naturalists  that  nature  does  nothing  per  saltum. 
Hardly  a  group  of  plants  can  be  examined  in  which 
there  will  not  be  found  one  or  more  that  the  fami- 
ly description  will  not  embrace,  in  all  particulars. 
There  are  also  some  plants  so  valuable  for  several 
purposes,  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  determine,  in 
every  case,  the  leading  idea.  They  are  made  for  a 
double  purpose,  and  may  develop  in  either  direction. 
The  apple-tree,  with  double  blossoms,  or  the  tomato, 
with  tubers  upon  it,  would  not,  therefore,  with  any 
candid  person,  affect  the  bearing  of  the  propositions. 
If  a  law  of  nature  is  really  discovered,  all  exceptions 
are  either  merely  apparent,  or  if  real,  are  found  to 
be  special  provisions  for  some  wise  purpose.  It  is 
the  general  law  of  variation  that  we  now  wish  to 
present  for  consideration,  in  the  propositions  just 
enunciated.  If  these  propositions  have  any  signifi- 
cance, to  what  do  they  tend  ?  Certainly  to  show 
that  the  vegetable  kingdom  is  not  an  end  to  itself. 
Men  and  animals  do  not  make  use  of  plants  because 
they  happen  to  be  what  they  are ;  but  the  plants 
are  constituted  as  they  are,  for  the  sake  of  the  ani- 
mal kingdom,  and  many  of  them  with  a  direct  refer- 
ence to  man  as  an  intellectual  and  moral  being.  It 
is  by  the  law  of  variation  of  species  that  they  are 
most  perfectly  fitted  for  these  high  purposes. 

In   almost   every   department    of  plant  life,   the 
changes  can  be  referred  primarily  to  the  good  of  the 


1 66  Natural  Theology. 

plant  itself ;  and  thus  it  is  easy  to  say,  and  no  doubt 
some  believe,  that  there  is  in  them  no  purpose 
other  than  the  continuance  of  the  species,  if  any 
purpose  at  all.  The  cereals — wheat,  rye,  barley, 
Indian-corn,  and  rice — furnish  the  great  bulk  of  food 
for  the  human  race.  We  have  no  doubt  that  most 
men  will  believe  that  they  were  made  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  not  that  they  happened  to  be  what  they 
are,  or  that  the  primary  object  in  importance  was 
that  they  might  propagate  their  kind,  and  that  the 
support  of  animal  life  was  no  part  of  the  plan,  but 
accidental  or  subsidiary. 

Yet  there  is  much  that  seems  to  favor  the  theory 
that  all  the  machinery  of  fruiting  is  for  the  continu- 
ance of  species  alone.  If  the  germ  fails  to  be  fertil- 
ized by  the  pollen,  no  sugar,  nor  starch,  nor  gluten, 
is  stored  up  in  the  seed  for  man.  But  when  the 
pollen  has  touched  the  germ,  there  is  power  of  inde- 
pendent life,  and  from  that  moment  all  the  energies 
of  the  plant  are  taxed  to  store  the  kernel  with  food  ; 
but  food  for  what  ?  For  whom  ?  For  the  young 
plant,  all  agree.  It  puts  in  the  seed  the  food  which 
the  germ  needs  for  its  support,  till  its  roots  and 
leaves  are  large  enough  to  collect  from  the  earth 
and  air  the  crude  materials  and  elaborate  them  for 
use. 

For  what  purpose  is  the  starch  garnered  up  in  the 
potato,  and  the  sugar  in  the  beet,  the  carrot,  and  the 
parsnip  ?  We  shall  be  told  that  they  are  stored  up 
for  the  plants  themselves,  to  supply  the  great  draft 
made  upon  them  in  producing  fruit.      We  cannot 


Certainty  of  Propagation.  167 

deny  it,  nor  do  we  wish  to  do  so.  We  love  to  con- 
template the  parent  plant  providing  for  every  one 
of  the  thousand  plantlets  folded  in  its  seeds,  des- 
tined to  beautify  the  earth  when  its  own  withered 
stalk  has  passed  away.  Would  that  men  might  learn 
a  lesson  from  it,  and  provide  for  their  offspring 
enough,  and  only  enough,  for  their  wants  till  able 
to  provide  for  themselves.  We  can  hardly  help  ad- 
miring the  seeming  prudence  of  the  honest  beet  and 
parsnip,  that  industriously  gather  stores  of  food  the 
first  year  for  the  flowering  time,  when  both  root  and 
leaves  would  fail  to  supply  their  wants.  In  all  these 
things  we  have  been  compelled  to  recognise  a  wis- 
dom and  a  skill  that  thus  arranged  the  machinery 
of  the  plant. 

But  in  the  very  arrangement  for  the  plant  itself, 
there  seems  to  shine  forth  a  higher  and  nobler  pur- 
pose. In  the  multitude  of  seeds,  an  apparent  waste 
of  energy,  there  seems  to  be  a  provision  for  their 
legitimate  destruction  by  a  higher  creation.  And 
if  the  grain  of  wheat  fails  to  fill  unless  the  germ  is 
there,  who  does  not  see  that  it  is  better  for  man 
that  it  should  be  so  ?  It  is  best  for  him  that  every 
grain  of  wheat  should  represent  both  so  much  food, 
and  also  a  certain  centre  of  new  plant  life.  With 
what  uncertainty  would  the  husbandman  sow  his 
field,  if  perchance  only  one  in  a  thousand  of  the  pre- 
cious grains  scattered  on  the  furrow  would  give  the 
green  blade,  and,  in  time  of  harvest,  the  full  ear  ! 
He  who  regards  the  support  of  animal  life  as  the 
highest  use  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  must  also  see 


1 68  Natural  Theology. 

that  certainty  of  propagation  is  of  prime  importance 
in  the  plants  already  mentioned. 

But  we  have  perhaps  too  far  prolonged  this  dis- 
cussion on  this  provision  in  plant  life,  for  the  produc- 
tion of  food.  We  readily  grant  that  in  the  major- 
ity of  cases,  the  food  for  animals  is  produced  in  a 
way  that  seems  primarily  for  the  benefit  of  the  plant, 
as  an  individual  or  species.  To  some  it  may  appear 
to  be  prepared  solely  for  the  plant.  To  this,  how- 
ever, we  think  there  are  plain  exceptions  ;  and  among 
them 'we  mention  again  our  soft  fruits,  which  are 
the  envelope,  or  mere  accompaniment  of  the  seed. 
The  seeds  need  a  covering,  it  is  true.  But  why 
should  the  covering  of  the  apple-seed  give  the  thou- 
sand kinds  of  this  delicious  fruit,  of  every  tint  and 
flavor,  and  varied  time  of  ripening?  Why  do  the 
pear  and  peach  vie  with  the  apple  in  the  diversified 
forms  and  flavors  they  offer  ?  Why  does  the  straw- 
berry enlarge  its  receptacle  into  that  most  delicious 
fruit  ?  Why  does  the  grape  bury  its  seeds  in  such 
a  luscious  pulp,  and  sometimes  form  the  pulp  with- 
out the  seed  ?  That  the  perfection  and  variety  of 
the  soft  portion  of  such  fruits  play  any  part  in  the 
economy  of  the  plant,  no  one  will  probably  contend. 
The  pulp  of  the  grape  represents  to  man  so  much 
food.  If  it  forms  without  seed,  it  is  the  cause  of  no 
indirect  injury,  as  the  filling  of  wheat-grains  with- 
out the  germ  would  be,  because  it  never  represents 
new  plant  life.  If  the  soft  fruits  have  no  purpose 
except  to  cover  the  seed,  their  increase  in  size,  and 
improvement  in  flavor,  are  a  mistake.     The  native 


Ulterior  Purpose.  169 

apple,  in  all  its  harshness  ;  the  frost  grapes,  which 
the  animals  allow  to  fall,  with  their  seeds  untouched, 
unless  driven  to  eat  them  or  starve ;  the  peach,  in 
its  hard  covering,  and  the  button  pear,  which  no 
cooking  can  fully  conquer — all  these  are  for  the 
plant  the  perfection  of  fruits.  Such  fruits  perfect 
and  protect  their  seeds. 

But  our  Black  Hamburghs  and  Sweet-waters,  our 
Pippins  and  Bartletts,  are  mistakes,  and  evidences 
of  want  of  design  in  such  plants,  if  they  have  no 
end  out  of  themselves  ;  for  all  these  variations  from 
the  original  stock  either  weaken  the  seed  or  invite 
to  its  destruction.  Because  they  are  of  no  advan- 
tage to  the  plant,  must  we  grant  that  they  are  a 
mistake,  or  without  significance  ?  By  no  means. 
Nor  do  we  think  it  possible  for  the  majority  of  men 
ever  to  believe  that  we  have  not  here  a  direct  pro- 
vision for  the  animal  kingdom,  as  a  whole,  and  for 
man  in  particular ;  a  provision  that  shows  wisdom, 
though  through  it  plant-life  is  made  entirely  second- 
ary. The  continuance  of  the  species  must  be  pro- 
vided for  by  some  means,  or  its  creation  would  be  a 
failure.  This  being  done,  sometimes  by  one  method, 
and  sometimes  by  another,  all  the  parts  of  the  plant, 
not  needed  for  propagation,  may  be  modified  for  the 
benefit  of  this  higher  kingdom.  It  seems  to  us  that 
all  these  modifications  indicate  this  ulterior  purpose, 
to  which  the  interests  of  the  plant,  so  to  speak,  are 
made  to  yield.  We  have  no  doubt,  indeed,  the  three 
kingdoms  of  nature  are  all  arranged  with  reference 
to  man,  especially  as  an  intellectual  and  moral  being. 

8 


170  Natural  Theology. 

We  have  already  referred  to  crystallography,  and  we 
shall,  in  a  future  lecture,  enter  into  the  considera- 
tion of  chemical  combinations,  in  their  relation  to 
man.  We  never  could  see  how  the  plan  of  struc- 
ture, the  whole  science  of  homologies  in  the  animal 
and  vegetable  kingdoms,  could  be  fully  comprehend- 
ed by  any  one,  without  the  recognition  of  a  direct 
provision  for  man  as  an  intellectual  being.  Animals 
and  plants  are  constructed  with  parts  apparently  for 
no  other  purpose  than  to  show  their  true  place  in 
the  organic  kingdom.  We  believe  that  they  are 
thus  linked  together  by  homologous  parts  that  they 
might  be  comprehended  by  man,  that  he  might  more 
surely  trace  the  plan  of  the  Great  Architect. 

We  believe  this  also,  without  reference  to  the 
question  whether  these  parts  came  to  be  as  they  are 
through  secondary  causes  or  by  direct  creation. 

In  the  provision  made  for  the  increase  of  beauty 
in  the  flower  by  doubling,  there  is  certainly  no 
reference  to  the  welfare  of  the  plant,  for  beauty 
increases  at  the  expense  of  the  seed,  the  final  cause, 
or  one  use  of  the  flower,  as  all  will  allow.  When 
we  see  this  tendency  to  variation  in  such  a  multi- 
tude of  flowers ;  when  we  see  it  confined  to  those 
plants  having  methods  of  propagation  other  than 
the  seed  ;  when  we  see  this  tendency  conferring  no 
possible  benefit  upon  the  individual  plant  nor  upon 
the  species  ;  when  we  see  what  a  source  of  enjoy- 
ment this  law  is  to  man  in  his  highest  cultivation, 
we  might  say,  how  necessary  for  that  highest  culti- 
vation— can  we  doubt  for  what  purpose  this  law  of 


Condition  of  Progress.  171 

variation  was  given  ?  Who  can  fail  to  feel  that  the 
plant  is  not  for  itself ;  but  so  far  as  it  seems  to  be 
for  itself,  it  is  that  it  may  exist  ;  that  it  exists  for  a 
higher  kingdom,  and  that  the  final  cause  of  plant 
variation  is  found  mainly  in  the  wants  of  man, 
not  only  as  a  physical,  but  also  as  an  intellectual 
being. 

There  is  another  significance  of  varieties,  besides 
their  adaptations  to  these  wants  of  man,  although 
to  some  it  may  seem  a  mere  accident.  We  refer  to 
the  conditions  thus  presented  to  man  for  continual 
progress.  In  consequence  of  this  wonderful  law  of 
varieties,  there  is  opened  the  possibility  of  continued 
improvement  ;  to  reach  the  limit  of  this  improve- 
ment is  impossible.  Were  it  true  that  each  species 
produced  from  age  to  age  the  same  identical  form 
without  variation,  whenever  each  species  was 
secured,  all  would  be  done  that  could  be  done  in 
that  direction.  We  have  but  one  species  of  apple. 
From  this  have  been  produced  hundreds  of  distinct 
kinds. 

There  might,  indeed,  have  been  as  many  distinct 
species  created  in  the  beginning.  But  even  then, 
all  that  could  be  done,  would  be  to  secure  the  kinds 
created.  In  consequence  of  this  wonderful  law,  the 
same  end  is  reached  as  in  the  creation  of  number- 
less distinct  species,  and  in  a  manner  far  better  for 
man.  From  one  species  have  sprung  unnumbered 
forms  ;  the  next  year  may  produce  others  still  more 
desirable,  and  the  next  year  others  better  still,  and 
so  on  for  ever.     It  is  impossible  for  man  to  say  that 


172  Natural  Theology. 

he  has  now  the  most  delicious  apple,  peach,  or  pear, 
or  the  most  beautiful  rose,  or  the  most  prolific  vari- 
ety of  corn  possible.  The  next  year  a  better  apple, 
a  more  beautiful  rose,  a  more  prolific  variety  of 
corn  may  be  produced,  and  this  shall  be  true  for 
ever. 

There  is  thus  laid  in  this  law  of  the  animal  and 
vegetable  kingdoms  the  surest  condition  of  a  con- 
tinued progress  in  man.  The  possibility  of  better 
forms  is  ever  saying  to  him,  Onward  !  Upward ! 

In  thus  viewing  the  law  of  variations  in  all  its 
manifestations,  we  have  forced  upon  us  the  convic- 
tion that,  while  it  sometimes  has  reference  undoubt- 
edly to  the  plant  or  animal  itself  in  the  preservation 
of  the  species  in  its  higher  manifestations,  espe- 
cially in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  it  is  for  something 
out  of  the  plant,  and  for  a  higher  creation — the 
animal  kingdom  ;  above  all,  for  man  as  a  rational 
creature.  If  all  these  things  were  created  by  an 
infinitely  wise  Being,  this  is  what  we  should  expect. 
If  they  were  created  directly,  we  should  expect  it ; 
if  through  secondary  causes  operating  through  my- 
riads of  years,  we  should  expect  the  same. 

And  so  at  this  point  we  are  ready  to  say  that  we 
do  not  see  the  atheistical  tendency  of  the  so-called 
development  theory  at  all,  except  so  far  as  it  has  a 
tendency  to  remove  us  further  from  God  in  nature, 
and  in  this  way  make  it  easier  for  men  to  forget 
Him  or  doubt  His  existence.  What  difference  can 
it  make  in  our  belief  in  the  existence,  the  wisdom, 
or  the  power  of  God,  whether  he  created  the  first 


Microscopic  Germ.  173 

oak  as  a  tree  or  as  a  germ,  that  through  secondary- 
causes — the  sunlight,  the  air,  and  the  rain — should 
expand  into  the  oak  ?  The  microscopic  germ,  with 
this  force  lodged  in  it,  that  determines  the  growth 
of  the  oak,  the  form  and  strength  of  every  fibre,  the 
outline  of  every  leaf,  the  outward  sculpture  and  in- 
ward structure  of  every  acorn  that  shall  cover  it  for 
a  hundred  years,  is  as  much  a  proof  of  infinite  wis- 
dom and  almighty  power  as  the  oak  in  its  perfec- 
tion. If  one  fails  to  be  proof,  the  other  must.  If, 
to  go  further,  we  were  to  suppose  a  single  germ  to 
be  placed  upon  this  globe,  which,  with  untold  ages 
for  its  development,  should  give  rise  to  all  the  myr- 
iad forms  of  vegetable  and  animal  life,  with  all  their 
wonderful  relations  to  each  other,  as  the  germ  of 
the  oak  develops  into  the  tree ;  the  root,  the  stem, 
the  leaf,  the  flower,  and  the  fruit,  all  unlike,  but  hav- 
ing a  relation  to  each  other — if  we  could  believe 
that  from  one  such  germ  all  life  upon  our  globe  had 
sprung,  would  it  shake  our  belief  for  one  moment  in 
God,  or  alter  our  conception  of  His  character  ?  Do 
we  look  upon  the  trees  and  the  animals  around  us, 
upon  our  own  bodies,  as  any  the  less  the  work  of 
God,  or  evidence  of  His  existence  and  illustrative  of 
His  character,  because  produced  through  secondary 
causes,  than  they  would  be  if  they  came  full  grown 
from  the  hand  of  God,  as  we  believe  that  Adam 
came  ?  If  one  looks  at  his  own  body,  and  fails  to 
see  so  much  of  purpose  there  as  to  imply  a  designer, 
then  he  would  fail  to  see  it  if  he  were  created  full 
grown.     There  is  a  certain  kind  or  degree  of  seep- 


174  Natural  Theology. 

ticism  for  which  there  is  no  cure  ;  it  is  an  incapa- 
city to  weigh  proof.  This  may  exist  in  connection 
with  great  learning  and  great  power  of  scientific  in- 
vestigation. Where  this  defect  exists,  all  labor  spent 
in  accumulating  proof  is  labor  lost.  When  you  have 
presented  one  object  to  a  man  in  clear  sunlight  and 
he  cannot  see  it,  you  know  he  is  blind,  and  no  accu- 
mulation of  objects  will  enable  him  to  see.  This 
principle  was  forcibly  illustrated  by  our  Saviour,  when 
He  represented  Abraham  as  saying  :  "  If  they  hear 
not  Moses  and  the  prophets,  neither  will  they  be 
persuaded  though  one  rose  from  the  dead." 

We  consider  the  decision  of  the  question  how 
animals  and  plants  came  upon  this  globe  to  be  a 
matter  of  investigation  as  to  facts.  How  that  ques- 
tion will  be  ultimately  decided  we  have  no  doubt. 
Biologists  can  throw  light  upon  many  dark  points, 
but  it  is  upon  geology  that  we  must  mainly  rely  for 
facts.  We  have  not  seen  any  strong  argument  made 
out,  none  that  leads  us  to  believe  that  geology  has 
yet  given  any  satisfactory  testimony  in  favor  of  the 
development  theory.  We  have  attempted  to  show 
that  variation  is  what  we  should  expect  to  find  in 
species  created  by  a  wise  Being.  And  if  we  are 
threatened  with  the  authority  of  great  names  on  the 
opposite  side,  we  will  not  be  dismayed  while  we 
have  on  our  book-shelves  the  works  of  the  same  great 
men,  in  which  the  opposite  view  is  most  ably  main- 
tained. We  can  afford  to  wait,  certainly,  till  they 
have  refuted  their  own  arguments,  unless  we  get 
new   light   in   other  directions.     When  the   truth 


Result  of  Variation.  175 

comes,  we  are  not  only  bound  to  receive  it,  but  are 
ready  to  do  so. 

We  welcome  all  labors  of  the  development  the- 
orists, and  feel  thankful  for  them.  We  welcome 
them  as  contributions  to  science. 

We  never  read  a  more  convincing  work  on  natu- 
ral theology  than  Darwin's  book  on  the  Fertilization 
of  Orchids.  We  have  no  doubt  that  he  and  his 
colaborers  are  accumulating  weapons  that  will  yet 
batter  down  his  philosophy  and  the  leading  theory 
upon  which  it  rests.  "  We  heartily  adopt,"  says  a 
distinguished  scientific  man,  "  the  science  of  Darwin, 
but  not  his  philosophy." 

The  distinction  is  a  just  one  ;  and  such  a  spirit 
will  guide  us  safely.  The  subject  of  variations, 
which  we  have  been  discussing,  has  given  rise  to 
the  development  theory.  We  accept  the  facts  of 
variation  and  the  influence  of  "natural  selection," 
but  not  the  inferences  that  are  drawn  from  them. 

We  see  the  need  of  variations  for  the  best  good 
of  the  world,  for  man  himself.  If  provided  for  in 
the  creation  of  certain  species,  and  those  species 
most  useful  to  man,  we  see  in  this  a  mark  of  wis- 
dom as  much  as  in  the  adaptation  of  the  parts  of 
our  bodies  to  each  other,  or  of  our  bodies  to  the 
external  world. 

We  regard,  then,  the  law  of  variation  as  a  means 
of  preserving  the  species  under  certain  circum- 
stances, and  as  a  means  of  better  fitting  beings  for 
their  various  uses,  and  not  as  the  creator  of  the 
being,  nor  in  any  sense  the  originator  of  the  species. 


176  Natural  Theology. 

Variation  is  the  quality  of  a  species,  and  not  its 
producer.  We  see  nothing  yet  to  shake  this  belief, 
and  we  see  no  theory  of  creation  more  simple  or 
plausible  than  the  Bible  account. 


LECTURE  VII. 

CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS  AND  THEIR  MUTUAL  RELATION. 

Argument  for  design  may  rest  on  collocation  alone. — Charac- 
ter of  Creator  learned  from  the  very  proofs  of  His  exist- 
ence.— Number  of  elements  known. — Results  secured  by 
their  nature  and  relative  quantity. — Fixed  laws  of  combi- 
nation.— Neither  matter  nor  force  lost. — Pillars  of  organic 
life. — Evidence  of  design  i?i  the  constitution  of  matter. — 
Equilibrium^  how  restored  in  the  four  elements. — Balanced 
affiiiity. — Nature  of  their  compounds. — Oxygen  specially 
considered. — Its  compoutids. — The  air. — Original  condition 
of  matter. — Oxygen  in  the  air  a  residual  substance. — Essen- 
tial to  animals. — Helps  form  the  tissues  and  secures  activi- 
ty.— Produces  artificial  light  and  heat. — Common  and  act- 
ive state. — Ozone. — Affinity  of  oxygen  varied  by  tempera- 
ture.— Hydrogen. — Basis  of  flame. — Its  inflammable  com- 
pounds.— Combination  of  properties  fitting  it  for  a  light- 
Producer. — Combines  with  carbon  to  produce  light. — Sum- 
mation of  properties. — Its  fitness  for  organic  structures. — 
Constant  change  in  animal  bodies. — Relation  of  hydrogen 
to  nitrogen. — Nitrogen  adds  to  weight  of  atmosphere. — 
Moderates  the  action  of  hydrogen. — Negative  properties :- — 
Nature  of  its  compounds. — Carbon.— Different  forms. — 
Supplements  hydrogen  i?i  combustion. — As  an  element,  al- 
ways solid. — Coal. — Indestructible  at  common  temperature. 
— Carbonic  acid. 

In  our  last  lecture  we  considered  the  law  of  varia- 
tion among  species,  by  which  varieties  are  produced 
in  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdom.  That  sub- 
ject completed  all  we  have  to  say  of  the  adaptations 
to  the  physical  wants  of  the  animal  kingdom.     The 

8* 


178  Natural  Theology. 

remaining  lectures  will  be  devoted  mainly  to  the 
provisions  in  nature  for  the  intellectual  and  moral 
constitution  of  man,  and  to  the  Bible  as  a  part  of 
those  provisions. 

But  before  we  consider  these  higher  adaptations, 
we  wish  to  go  further  still  in  our  investigation  of 
the  physical  universe,  that  we  may  see  that  we  can 
reach  no  depth  where  evidence  of  the  being  and 
character  of  God  is  not  found.  As  we  commenced 
with  man,  and  have  followed  organic  life  through 
the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  we  come,  natu- 
rally, in  our  course,  to  the  chemical  elements  which 
make  up,  not  only  the  earth,  but  all  of  those  beings 
we  have  been  considering. 

The  argument  for  design  certainly  would  be  con- 
clusive, if  the  science  of  chemistry  were  unknown. 
That  argument  can  rest  on  the  collocation  of  mat- 
ter alone  ;  on  results  worked  out  by  means  of  it. 
A  curiously  constructed  machine  might  be  studied 
in  reference  to  the  end  for  which  it  was  made,  with- 
out any  knowledge  of  the  materials  of  which  it  was 
composed.  The  hands  of  a  watch,  marking  the 
hours,  minutes,  and  seconds,  upon  the  dial-plate, 
would  be  to  us  proof  of  design,  though  we  had  never 
looked  beneath  the  dial-plate  to  learn  the  material 
or  even  the  combination  of  wheels  and  springs  by 
which  the  result  is  secured.  In  fact,  all  the  different 
kinds  of  clocks  and  watches  equally  show  design 
although  no  one  can  tell  how  much  skill  has  been 
manifested  in  their  construction  till  he  sees  the 
work,  or  witnesses  the  results. 


Chemistry.  179 

So  the  structure  of  the  eye  might  be  understood 
by  an  anatomist,  and  its  evidence  of  design  and  the 
mechanical  skill  manifested  be  appreciated  by  an 
optician,  though  he  knew  nothing  of  the  chemical 
elements  that  composed  it,  and  had  never  heard  of 
atomic  weights  or  chemical  formulas. 

But  the  deeper  we  go  in  our  study  of  Nature,  the 
more  perfect  the  proof  becomes  for  the  existence 
of  God,  and  the  more  full  are  the  revelations  of  His 
character.  And  by  the  very  process  of  proving 
His  being,  we  learn  His  character,  for  we  only 
know  that  He  is,  in  the  study  of  nature,  by  learn- 
ing what  he  is.  There  is  now  no  field  of  physical 
research  in  which  the  knowledge  is  more  exact 
than  in  chemistry  ;  and  there  is  no  department  of 
science  that  shows  more  plainly  the  being  and  cha- 
racter of  God.  The  proof  may  not  be  so  tangible 
as  in  some  of  the  special  contrivances  found  in  the 
animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms  ;  and  being  of  a  more 
general  character,  it  may  not  be  so  satisfactory  to  all 
men.  But  every  argument  here  has  the  advantage 
of  not  being  weakened  by  any  development  theo- 
ries. Matter  remains  as  it  was.  Chemical  affinity 
is  the  same  now  that  it  was  when  the  foundations 
of  the  earth  were  laid.  There  is  in  it  no  volition, 
no  organic  law  of  development.  There  is  no  possi- 
ble indication  of  any  change  in  the  quantity  of  matter, 
or  in  its  laws  of  combination. 

When  we  consider  that  the  living  species  of  ani- 
mals now  known  number  half  a  million  at  least,  and 
the  species  of  plants  are  numbered  by  hundreds  of 


180  Natural  Theology. 

thousands,  with  such  diverse  appearance  and  pro- 
perties, we  should  infer  that  the  kinds  of  matter 
composing  them  were  very  numerous.  But  these 
varied  substances  are  merely  combinations.  The  eye, 
with  all  its  curious  mechanism  ;  the  brain,  the  organ 
of  the  mind  ;  the  feather  of  the  ostrich,  the  count- 
less shells  of  the  ocean  and  the  land  ;  the  fruits  and 
flowers,  the  healing  balsams  and  deadly  poisons — are 
all  formed  from  but  few  of  the  elements  that,  under 
the  control  of  chemical  affinity,  modified  by  the  vital 
principle,  produce  these  varied  compounds. 

Not  seventy  elements  are  yet  known  ;  and  of  these, 
not  more  than  twenty  make  up  the  great  mass  of 
the  earth's  crust,  and  four  of  them  constitute  the 
greater  portion  of  all  organic  beings.  When  we 
learn  the  small  number  of  simple  substances,  we 
are  at  once  impressed  with  the  vast  number  of 
conditions  under  which  they  can  appear  in  pro- 
ducing every  inorganic  and  organic  object  upon  the 
globe. 

There  is  a  wonderful  fitness  in  the  elements  to 
produce  results  ;  and  this  fitness  is  secured  both  by 
their  nature,  and  the  quantity  in  which  they  were 
created.  They  give  the  solid  framework  of  the 
earth,  the  water  and  the  air,  the  plants  and  ani- 
mals. This  globe  is  what  it  is,  not  only  because 
the  elements  are  what  they  are,  but  because  of  their 
relative  quantity.  If  the  hydrogen  which  forms 
one-ninth  of  all  the  water  on  the  globe  had  been 
much  increased,  there  would  have  been  more  water  ; 
but  no  free  oxygen  would  have  been  left,  and  animal 


Important  Elements.  181 

life  as  it  now  exists  would  have  been  impossible 
upon  the  earth.  If  there  had  been  less  hydrogen  to 
combine  with  the  oxygen,  or  less  nitrogen  to  mingle 
with  it,  the  air  would  have  been  so  rich  in  this  ele- 
ment that  combustion  would  have  been  uncontrolla- 
ble. Had  there  been  no  potash,  the  majority  of 
land  plants  could  have  had  no  existence  ;  or  if  it  had 
been  found  in  small  portions  here  and  there  upon 
the  earth,  what  a  scanty  vegetation  would  have 
existed?  And  as  animals  depend  upon  plants  for 
life,  without  this  element  as  it  now  exists,  land  ani- 
mals would  be  almost,  if  not  entirely  unknown. 
Men  probably  could  not  exist.  The  same  is  true 
of  other  elements,  of  which  we  are  accustomed  to 
think  but  little.  If  no  phosphorus  were  found  upon 
the  globe,  none  of  the  higher  plants  could  grow 
and  mature  their  seeds,  none  of  the  higher  animals 
could  exist. 

The  bone  and  brain  of  man  must  have  this  ele- 
ment. Now  it  is  easy  for  one  who  has  never  studied 
this  subject  in  the  light  of  chemistry,  geology,  and 
physiology,  to  think  of  the  earth  as  a  huge  conglo- 
meration of  matter,  supporting  plants  and  animals, 
and  to  suppose  that  it  might  have  been  very  differ- 
ent from  what  it  now  is,  and  still  support  them  ;  but 
it  is  not  so.  The  want  of  a  single  one  of  the  abun- 
dant elements,  of  oxygen  or  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  car- 
bon, calcium,  phosphorus,  or  potassium,  would  have 
left  the  earth  a  dreary  waste.  Any  essential  variation 
in  the  quantity,  or  distribution,  or  chemical  power  of 
any  one  of  them,  would  have  entirely  changed  the  face 


1 82  Natural  Theology. 

of  nature.  What  chemist  can  gather  a  spadeful  of 
soil  in  any  portion  of  the  earth,  and  find  in  it  these 
elements,  as  he  will,  so  essential  to  plant  and  ani- 
mal life,  without  being  filled  with  wonder  at  the 
accuracy  of  that  great  chemical  experiment  when 
the  world  was  made  ?  And  when  he  has  learned 
from  geology  by  what  means  these  substances  have 
been  spread  over  the  earth,  and  so  prepared  that 
they  may  be  ever  present  in  the  soil,  his  wonder 
is  not  diminished,  and  he  needs  what  has  been 
called  the  "  capacious  credulity  of  an  infidel,"  to  be- 
lieve that  anything  but  Infinite  Wisdom  and  Power 
could  produce  the  result  which  he  sees.  The  poetic 
language  of  Holy  Writ  has  for  him  a  literal  meaning  : 
"  Who  hath  measured  the  waters  in  the  hollow  of  his 
hand,  and  meted  out  heaven  with  a  span,  and  com- 
prehended the  dust  of  the  earth  i7i  a  measure,  and 
weighed  the  mountains  in  scales,  and  the  high  hills 
in  a  balance  ?  " 

He  finds  an  answer  in  the  elements.  These  ele- 
ments, so  wonderfully  constituted,  so  nicely  balanced 
in  quantity  and  so  carefully  distributed  by  the  geo- 
logic forces  that  have  continued  to  act  since  the 
foundations  of  the  earth  were  laid,  give  not  only  the 
conditions  of  sensitive  life,  but  all  that  sensitive  life 
can  desire.  Man,  the  lord  and  master  of  the  animal 
kingdom,  finds  in  the  combination  and  power  of  the 
elements  the  support  of  his  life,  the  means  of  enjoy- 
ment in  the  exercise  of  all  his  senses,  the  means  of 
improvement  in  the  use  of  all  his  powers. 

We  learn  also,  that  these  combinations  in  the  pro- 


Matter  Unchanged.  183 

duction  of  distinct  objects  is  no  matter  of  chaixe  ; 
that  the  objects  around  us  are  not  mere  accidents, 
here  of  one  composition,  and  there  of  another. 
Limestone  is  the  same  the  world  over,  containing 
so  much  metal,  so  much  oxygen,  and  so  much  car- 
bon. Give  the  chemist  the  weight  of  the  stone,  and 
if  it  be  pure,  he  will  tell  you  how  much  of  each  ele- 
ment is  present,  as  well  before  he  analyzes  it  as 
afterwards.  Matter  remains  unchanged  in  its  kind, 
and  its  laws  remain  the  same  ;  so  that  every  gem, 
when  it  is  crushed,  or  melted,  or  dissolved,  has  only 
changed  its  form.  Neither  the  elements  that  com- 
posed it,  nor  the  forces  that  arranged  the  particles, 
have  changed.  All  that  is  wanted  are  the  proper 
conditions,  and  the  gem  will  reappear.  Decay  and 
fire  may  destroy  the  form  of  the  animal,  tree,  and 
tender  plant ;  but  from  every  one  goes  forth  the  ma- 
terial and  the  energy,  that,  under  the  control  of  the 
vital  principle,  shall  produce  the  same  kind  of  organ- 
ic structure,  or  its  equal,  in  quantity  of  matter  and 
chemical  force. 

So  in  the  ceaseless  changes  on  our  planet,  in  the 
grand  succession  of  life  and  death,  that,  like  suc- 
cessive waves,  sweeps  over  it ;  nothing  is  lost,  no- 
thing ever  has  been  lost,  and  nothing  gained. 

Nothing  of  chance  has  been  found,  or  can  be 
found.  The  elements  are  the  alphabet  of  the  mate- 
rial world,  and  chemical  affinity  and  vitality  the 
great,  unwearied  compositors,  that  set  in  type  the 
thoughts  of  God,  which  He  would  reveal  in  the  ma- 
terial universe.     And   we  have  in  the  constitution 


1 84  Natural  Theology. 

and  laws  of  matter,  as  convincing  proof  of  design 
as  in  the  type  of  the  printing-case,  that,  in  the  hands 
of  the  skilful  compositor,  goes  through  the  number- 
less changes  known  in  the  art  of  printing. 

We  shall  have  occasion,  in  another  place,  to  speak 
of  the  law  of  chemical  combination  in  relation  to 
mind.  In  the  present  lecture,  we  shall  confine  our- 
selves to  the  consideration  of  some  of  the  results 
of  that  law,  and  to  some  of  the  elements  and  chemi- 
cal compounds  that  play  an  important  part  in  the 
economy  of  nature,  especially  in  relation  to  man. 

And  the  first  elements  that  force  themselves  upon 
our  attention,  are  the  four  which  are  the  pillars  of 
organic  life.  While  many  other  elements  are  called 
into  play  in  building  up  and  supporting  organic 
beings,  they  are  so  small  in  quantity  compared  with 
oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  carbon,  that  these  are 
properly  regarded  as  the  pillars  of  plant  and  animal 
life.  They  not  only  supply  material  for  building  up 
the  living  structures,  but  they  also  furnish  the  con- 
ditions of  their  existence.  The  water  and  the  air 
are  their  products,  and  without  either  of  these  on 
the  globe,  organized  beings  could  not  exist.  We 
are  struck  with  wonder  and  admiration  at  the  fitness 
of  these  four  simple  elements  for  the  part  they  play 
in  this  globe,  in  transforming  it  from  a  barren  rock 
into  an  abode  of  beauty,  and  a  place  of  animal  and 
intellectual  enjoyment.  If  there  is  design  in  the 
collocation  of  matter,  in  the  adaptation  of  parts  in 
created  beings,  the  manifestation  of  wisdom  and 
benevolence  in  adorning  and  peopling  the  earth,  we 


Design  in  Matter.  185 

can  hardly  fail  to  inquire  if  there  is  not  also  evi- 
dence of  the  same  personal  attributes,  somewhere 
apparent,  in  the  materials  with  which  all  these  mar- 
vellous structures  have  been  formed.  And  when 
the  inquiry  has  been  fairly  made,  the  answer  has 
been  fully  and  explicitly  in  the  affirmative. 

There  is  nothing  absurd  in  supposing  matter  to 
have  existed,  in  some  form,  from  all  eternity.  But 
when  we  have  studied  the  elements  in  all  their  rela- 
tions and  adaptations,  it  is  impossible  for  us  to 
believe  that  matter  came  to  be  what  it  is  without 
an  ordaining  intelligence.  Such  relations  of  quality 
and  quantity  have  appeared  as  to  show,  most  con- 
clusively, that  the  elements  were  adapted  to  the 
reign  of  life  upon  the  globe.  And  the  combination 
of  so  many  substances,  with  such  a  range  of  affini- 
ties, could  not  be  supposed  to  exist,  working  harmo- 
niously to  the  same  end,  the  sustaining  of  life,  unless 
they  were  created  for  that  purpose.  To  believe  that 
they  happened  to  be  what  they  are,  would  demand 
the  utmost  credulity. 

We  can  but  glance  at  some  of  the  properties  and 
compounds  of  the  four  elements  already  referred  to. 
So  essential  are  they  to  life,  that  it  was  not  only 
necessary  that  they  should  be  well  distributed,  like 
other  substances,  in  the  beginning,  but  since  such 
vast  quantities  of  them  may  be  consumed  in  a  sin- 
gle place,  they  must  also  have  the  power  of  easily 
restoring  the  equilibrium,  or  of  returning  to  any 
portion  of  the  earth  from  which  they  may  be  taken. 
This  requirement  is  remarkably  met  by  their  con- 


1 86  Natural  Theology. 

stitution,   either   in   the  simple,   or  the  compound 
state. 

Three  of  them  are  gases  so  permanent,  that  no 
mechanical  power  that  man  can  bring  to  bear  upon 
them  can  reduce  them  to  the  solid  or  liquid  form. 
Oxygen  and  nitrogen  are  free,  uncombined  gases, 
floating  over  every  inch  of  the  globe,  as  atmosphere, 
bathing  every  object,  and  under  the  pressure  of  their 
own  weight  permeating  every  porous  substance. 
Hydrogen  is  not  found  uncombined  ;  but  in  its  com- 
pounds, especially  in  the  vapor  of  water,  it  is  almost, 
if  not  quite,  as  constantly  present  as  the  atmo- 
sphere itself.  Carbon,  the  fourth  element,  differs 
entirely  from  the  other  three.  So  far  from  being  a 
gas,  it  is  one  of  the  most  fixed  of  all  bodies  ;  no 
heat  yet  brought  to  bear  upon  it  having  caused  it  to 
take  the  form  of  vapor.  But  when  united  with 
oxygen  it  floats  away  in  the  air,  and  as  carbonic 
acid,  forms  itself  an  atmosphere  for  the  earth. 

These  four  elements  are,  then,  ever  present  in 
every  portion  of  the  earth.  No  matter  how  many 
tons  of  them  are  taken  up  by  the  green  herbage  of 
the  field  in  a  single  day,  at  its  close  there  may  be 
just  as  much  of  each  one  of  them  hovering  over  it 
and  resting  upon  it  as  though  not  a  single  grain 
had  been  gathered  in  over  its  broad  acres.  These 
elements  mingle  together  in  the  whirlwind  and  the 
storm.  They  float  together  in  the  gentlest  breeze. 
Every  breath  of  air  that  fans  the  cheek,  or  moves 
the  aspen  leaf,  bears  these  four  elements  as  insepa- 
ble  companions.   They  combine  and  recombine  under 


Oxygen.  187 

the  chemical  power  of  light  and  heat  and  the  electric 
flash,  and  thus  they  are  ready  in  every  place,  at  every 
moment,  to  renew  the  face  of  the  earth. 

The  affinity  they  have  for  each  other  is  so  nicely 
balanced  that  under  the  action  of  living  beings  they 
are  decomposed  and  recombined  to  form  organic 
compounds  ;  and  when  these  compounds  have  per- 
formed their  allotted  work,  they  are  decomposed 
into  other  compounds  of  gaseous  form,  to  float 
away,  until  again  imprisoned  by  the  roots  or  spread- 
ing leaves  of  the  forest,  or  the  tender  herbage  of 
the  meadow  ;  and  then  again  they  return  in  cease- 
less circuit  to  the  inorganic,  air-like  state. 

Each  of  these  elements  is  worthy  of  careful  study, 
for  its  relation  to  the  other  three,  and  for  the  part  it 
plays  in  the  economy  of  nature. 

Oxygen  is  the  most  abundant  element  on  the 
globe,  and  has  the  widest  range  of  affinity.  Nearly, 
if  not  quite,  one-half  of  all  the  solid  crust  of  the 
earth  is  composed  of  this  gas,  in  combination  with 
metallic  and  metalloid  substances.  And  here  we 
are  struck  with  the  numberless  series  of  compounds 
which  oxygen  gives,  without  which  the  earth  would 
be  entirely  unfitted,  in  its  mineral  constitution,  for 
the  support  of  vegetable,  and  consequently  of  ani- 
mal life.  The  deepest  rocks  which  the  convulsions 
of  the  earth  have  thrown  up  from  its  very  frame- 
work, are  made  up  chiefly  of  the  oxides  of  metals 
and  silicon.  And  every  sandstone,  slatestone,  and 
limestone  that  makes  up  the  sedimentary  rocks,  is 
simply  a  combination  of  this  gas  with  other  elements. 


1 88  Natural  Theology. 

The  quartz  pebble,  and  almost  all  the  gems,  bor- 
row their  hardness  and  varied  tints  from  combina- 
tions of  this  same  element.  The  sand  that  smooths 
the  rugged  rocks,  and  a  large  proportion  of  all  the 
salts  upon  which  plant  life  is  dependant,  are  oxides. 
Remove  the  oxygen  from  our  globe,  and  it  would  be 
left  a  metallic  ball,  mingled  only  here  and  there  with 
metalloids  in  combination.  Then  eight-ninths  of 
all  the  waters  that  fill  the  oceans,  roll  down  in  mighty 
rivers,  and  permeate  the  earth,  is  oxygen.  Thus  far 
it  appears  in  combination. 

It  has  seized  upon  the  metals  and  turned  them  to 
stone  ;  on  hydrogen,  and  formed  the  waters.  In  no 
one  of  these'  substances  would  its  presence  ever  be 
suspected,  were  it  not  for  that  searching  analysis 
by  which  the  chemist  unlocks  every  element  from 
the  chains  with  which  its  own  affinity  has  bound  it. 

But  in  the  air  we  have  it  uncombined.  It  is  dilut- 
ed with  four  times  its  quantity  of  nitrogen  ;  but 
there  is  no  chemical  union  between  them,  and  the 
oxygen  is  unchanged. 

No  chemist  can  study  the  rocks  without  feeling 
that  there  was  a  time  when  their  particles  were 
brought  together  to  form  the  compounds  which  they 
now  present.  The  oxygen  that  forms  the  granite 
was  undoubtedly  once  free  and  uncombined,  and  the 
oceans  of  water  once  floated  in  space  as  separate 
gases.  But  when  the  great  experiment  was  made 
of  bringing  these  elements  together  ;  when  the  com- 
pounds of  the  rocks  and  the  waters  of  the  oceans 
had  been  formed ;  when  oxygen  had  spent  its  fury 


Atmosphere.  189 

on  all  the  elements  which  it  has  since  held  in  its 
unyielding  grasp,  the  oxygen  of  the  air  was  undoubt- 
edly left  as  a  residual  substance.  For,  notwithstand- 
ing the  strong  affinity  of  oxygen  for  other  elements, 
the  amount  of  each  element  which  it  can  hold  in 
combination  is  unalterably  determined.  When 
every  metal  and  metalloid  that  forms  the  crust  of  the 
earth  had  received  its  portion,  the  oxygen  of  the 
atmosphere  was  so  much  of  one  material  in  excess 
in  the  world-making  experiment. 

Nor  do  we  regard  this  as  in  any  sense  a  mere 
lucky  accident.  Certain  it  is  that  the  whole  range 
of  life  upon  the  globe,  depends  upon  the  fact.  We 
regard  this  excess  as  one  of  the  predetermined  con- 
ditions of  the  experiment  which  was  tried  to  pre- 
pare an  abode  for  sensitive  life,  and  which  was, 
therefore,  tried  in  such  a  manner  as  to  secure  the 
end  in  view  ;  for  the  free  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere 
is  as  essential  to  life  as  the  rocks,  and  soils,  and 
water  that  form  the  earth's  crust.  The  result  is  the 
same  as  every  chemist  sometimes  aims  at  in  his 
work  in  the  laboratory.  He  pours  in  one  element  or 
compound  in  excess.  The  great  Architect  of  the 
universe  who  ordained  the  chemical  power  of  oxy- 
gen, ordained  also  the  quantity  of  materials  upon 
which  it  should  act  to  form  the  rocks  and  oceans  ; 
and  when  the  eternal  balance  was  poised,  to  deter- 
mine the  proportions,  provision  was  made  for  the 
atmosphere.  Oxygen  was  not  only  the  great  pre- 
parer of  the  globe  for  living  beings,  but  it  plays  such 
an  essential  part  in  sustaining  life,  that  the  early 


I  go  Natural  Theology. 

chemists  named  it  vital  air.  No  animal  can  live  with- 
out it.  It  not  only  enters  into  the  tissues,  forming 
in  the  higher  animals  bone,  and  muscle,  and  nerve, 
but  it  is  also  the  great  purifier  of  the  animal  system, 
combining  with  the  worn-out  particles,  giving  them 
the  form  best  fitted  for  elimination  from  the  body. 
And  by  this  very  process,  it  gives  that  power  to  the 
system  which  volition  calls  into  play  in  every  move- 
ment of  the  body,  and  exercise  of  mind  ;  and  as  it 
burns  up  the  organic  compounds,  it  becomes  the 
greatest  agent  in  securing  in  the  body  that  degree 
of  warmth  which  the  functions  of  life  demand. 

It  is  also  the  producer  of  artificial  light  and  heat 
in  all  ordinary  combustion.  Practically,  artificial 
light  and  heat  would  be  impossible  without  just 
such  an  element  as  oxygen  is.  We  have  indeed 
light  and  heat  from  the  combination  of  other  ele- 
ments, but  their  products  are  generally  solids  or 
noxious  compounds.  It  may  be  said  that  hydrogen 
and  carbon,  the  other  elements  concerned  in  ordi- 
nary combustion,  show  as  much  design  as  oxygen  ; 
and  so  undoubtedly  they  do.  They  were  created  in 
reference  to  each  other  ;  and  the  office  of  each,  and 
the  perfect  adaptation  of  each  one  for  that  office,  we 
shall  endeavor  to  show  in  another  place.  But  all 
will  agree  that  oxygen  is  the  great  heat  and  light 
producer.  In  vain  were  our  coal-beds  formed,  or  the 
veins  of  the  earth  filled  with  oil,  were  it  not  for  the 
free  oxygen  of  the  air.  For  without  this,  they  could 
give  no  more  light  and  heat  than  the  granite  of  the 
mountains,  or  the  waters  that  gush  from  their  sides. 


Strength  of  Affinity.  191 

Professor  Cooke,  in  his  extended  work  on  Religion 
and  Chemistry,  has  forcibly  presented  the  evidence 
of  design  in  the  two  states  of  oxygen.  In  its  ordi- 
nary condition  it  seems  harmless,  uncorrosive,  bath- 
ing the  most  delicate  organs  without  injury  ;  but 
when  roused  to  activity  by  a  certain  temperature,  it 
devours  with  the  fury  of  a  demon,  and  never  rests  till 
nothing  more  is  left  to  be  destroyed.  U-nder  certain 
conditions,  this  element  becomes  so  changed  that  it 
has  had  applied  to  it  a  new  name,  ozone,  from  the 
supposition  that  it  was  an  entirely  distinct  substance. 
Some  particles  of  this  active,  corrosive  form  of  oxy- 
gen are  ever  floating  in  the  air,  so  much  diluted  as 
in  general  to  prove  harmless  to  living  organisms, 
but  ever  ready  to  unite  with  decomposing  particles 
of  organic  matter,  and  thus  more  perfectly  fulfil  its 
mission  as  the  great  purifier.  When  this  subject 
shall  be  more  fully  studied,  we  have  every  reason 
to  believe,  from  late  experiments,  that  new  proofs 
will  be  brought  out  of  the  evidence  of  design  in 
adapting  this  peculiar  condition  of  oxygen  to  the 
welfare  of  the  animal  kingdom,  and  especially  of 
man. 

There  is  another  characteristic  of  this  element 
that  seems  to  have  special  relations  to  the  wants  of 
man.  Its  affinity  varies  in  its  intensity  for  different 
substances  according  to  the  temperature.  With 
iron,  it  unites  so  readily,  that  particles  of  pure  iron, 
properly  prepared  in  fine  powder,  glow  with  heat, 
and  are  changed  to  oxides,  simply  by  dropping 
through  the  air  ;  while  charcoal,  at  the  common  tern- 


192  Natural  Theology. 

perature  of  the  globe,  remains  unchanged  for  thou- 
sands of  years.  But  in  the  heat  of  the  furnace  its 
relative  affinity  is  completely  reversed,  so  that  the 
oxygen  rushes  from  the  iron  ore  to  the  heated  car- 
bon, leaving  the  iron  in  the  metallic  state  for  the 
use  of  man.  It  is  proper  here  to  state,  that  this  is 
only  one  example  of  the  change  in  the  relative 
strength  of. affinities  by  change  of  conditions  ;  taking 
advantage  of  which,  the  chemist  is  able  to  unlock 
every  compound,  and  produce  results  entirely  impos- 
sible were  the  affinities  of  all  substances  increased 
or  diminished  alike,  by  any  change  of  condition. 
The  materials  of  gunpowder  are  ground  and  pressed 
together,  and  yet  the  chemical  affinities  of  the  com- 
pounds remain,  at  ordinary  temperatures,  unchanged. 
The  oxygen  still  clings  to  the  potassium,  holding 
even  the  nitrogen  with  a  firm  grasp.  But  a  single 
spark  of  fire  reverses  these  affinities  in  an  instant, 
so  that  there  is  an  interchange  of  elements  ;  new 
compounds  are  formed ;  the  solids  change  to  gases 
with  terrible  explosive  power. 

When  we  see  an  element  transforming  the  globe 
from  a  ball  of  metal  to  the  rocky  crust  of  our  earth, 
forming  its  gems  and  soils,  its  oceans  that  beget 
the  springs,  the  rains,  and  dews  ;  when  we  see  it 
entering  into  the  structure  of  every  living  thing, 
and  essential  to  animal  life  for  every  moment ;  when 
we  see  it  prepared  in  such  quantity  that  when  it 
had  formed  all  needed  compounds,  just  enough  was 
left  to  carry  on  the  processes  of  life ;  when  we  see 
its  relation  to  light  and  heat,  its  passive  and  its 


Hydrogen.  193 

active  state,  and  its  change  of  affinity  under  the 
temperature  which  its  own  combination  produces, 
so  as  to  set  free  the  metals  and  other  substances 
most  useful  to  man — can  we  fail  to  recognise  in  it 
the  work  of  an  Infinite  Intelligence  ? 

The  second  element  of  the  group,  hydrogen,  is 
never  found  as  a  natural  product  in  an  uncombined 
state.  It  would  be  impossible  for  any  considerable 
quantity  of  it  to  exist  mingled  with  the  free  oxygen 
of  the  atmosphere,  without  chemically  combining 
under  the  influence  of  electricity,  and  other  agencies 
brought  to  bear  upon  it.  In  all  the  processes  of 
nature,  in  which  hydrogen  is  liberated  by  decompo- 
sition, it  is  liberated  as  a  compound,  or  it  unites 
with  some  other  element  the  instant  it  is  set  free. 
Its  most  abundant  compound,  water,  is  formed  by  its 
union  with  oxygen,  so  that  what  we  shall  hereafter 
say  of  water  will  have  as  much  reference  to  one  of 
these  elements  as  to  the  other.  But  hydrogen  has 
of  itself  properties  of  paramount  importance  to 
man.  It  is  in  almost  every  instance  the  basis  of 
flame.  Any  incandescent  gas  is  flame  ;  but  strike 
hydrogen  from  our  list  of  elements,  and  artificial 
light  from  flame  would  be  almost  impossible.  It  is 
hydrogen  that  fills  our  gasometers,  and,  flowing 
through  the  iron  arteries  beneath  the  streets 
throughout  the  city,  shoots  forth  its  jets  of  flame 
wherever  the  wants  of  man  demand  it,  almost  turn- 
ing night  into  day.  It  is  hydrogen,  that,  stored  up 
in  the  petroleum  for  countless  ages,  now  flows 
through  the  thousand  openings  in  the  rocks,  and 
9 


ig4  Natural  Theology. 

gives  to  the  whole  world  abundant  means  of  light 
It  is  hydrogen  in  the  oil  of  the  whale  that  gives  it 
such  value,  that  the  leviathan  of  the  deep  is  hunted 
among  the  icebergs  of  the  north.  The  blazing  wood 
upon  the  hearth-stones  sends  forth  in  its  flickering 
flame  the  cheerful  light  of  hydrogen.  The  palace 
and  the  hovel  are  alike  its  debtors. 

It  is  so  abundant,  and  so  combined  with  othei 
substances,  that  no  science  was  needed  to  prepare 
it  for  common  use.  In  wood  and  oil  it  has  ever  been 
at  the  command  of  the  most  illiterate  savage.  These 
substances  gave  him  light  as  well  as  heat,  he  knew 
not  how. 

It  remained  for  modern  science,  after  wood  and 
oil  had  supplied  the  wants  of  man  for  thousands  of 
years,  to  show  the  nice  balance  of  the  hydrogen 
affinities  with  other  elements,  so  that  it  should  be 
ever  ready  for  use  in  its  most  available  form. 

It  was  only  when  the  demands  of  civilization  call- 
ed for  a  more  extensive  use  of  flame,  that  science 
was  needed  to  set  hydrogen  free  in  large  quantities. 
It  cannot  improve  its  quality  over  that  which  the 
wax  and  oil  gave  the  ancients,  before  the  science  of 
chemistry  was  known.  It  is  only  by  a  combination 
of  many  properties  that  hydrogen  thus  supplies  the 
want  of  man  in  the  production  of  artificial  light. 
First,  we  have  the  strong  affinity  of  this  element  for 
oxygen,  by  which  flame  is  secured.  Second,  its  af- 
finity for  other  substances  with  which  it  is  found  in 
combination,  so  nicely  balanced  that  the  heat  pro- 
duced by  burning  one  portion  shall  be  sufficient  to 


Flame.  195 

set  free  another  portion,  and  so  on  until  the  stock 
of  hydrogen  is  exhausted.  A  common  lamp  or  can- 
dle is  a  gas-manufacturing  apparatus  where  the  burn- 
ing of  one  portion  of  the  gas,  while  it  gives  light 
and  heat,  as  though  that  were  its  only  office,  is  set- 
ting free  another  portion  to  renew  the  flame.  The 
flame  is  constantly  consumed,  and  yet  never  grow- 
ing less.  A  third  property  of  hydrogen  that  fits  it 
for  illuminating  purposes  is,  that  its  product  with 
oxygen  is  water,  which,  intensely  heated  at  the  in- 
stant of  its  formation,  passes  off  in  an  invisible  form, 
neither  obscuring  the  light  nor  doing  injury  to  the 
air.  But  hydrogen  alone  is  not  sufficient  to  produce 
light.  It  gives  flame  and  heat,  but  there  is  a  want 
of  brilliancy.  Even  the  compound  blow-pipe  flame, 
giving  the  most  intense  heat  produced  by  combus- 
tion, would  be  almost  useless  of  itself  for  illumina- 
tion. And  here  we  have  another  remarkable  pro- 
perty of  hydrogen,  that  fits  it  for  giving  light. 
Whenever  it  is  produced  by  heat,  from  organic  sub- 
stances, it  brings  off  in  combination  with  it  a  por- 
tion of  carbon.  This  carbon  is  set  free  as  minute 
particles  of  charcoal  in  the  hydrogen  flame,  and  for 
a  moment  these  thousand  points  of  white  hot  car- 
bon glow  with  intense  heat,  and  give  us  the  light  of 
the  common  flame.  The  next  moment  they  are 
burned  to  invisible  gas,  while  another  series  takes 
their  place.  How  nicely  all  these  affinities  must  be 
balanced.  Suppose  the  affinities  were  changed  so 
that  the  carbon  should  burn  first,  we  should  have 
heat,  but  no  sufficient  light.     Or  if  the  affinity  of 


196  Natural  Theology. 

hydrogen  were  too  strong  to  be  set  free  from  com- 
bination  by  the  heat  of  its  own  combustion,  then 
flame,  as  now  ordinarily  obtained,  would  be  impos- 
sible. But  the  hydrogen  having  the  power  to  bring 
off  carbon  in  the  form  of  gas,  and  then  to  drop  the 
particles  in  the  heated  flame  an  instant  before  they 
are  consumed,  we  have  the  light-giving  machinery 
perfect.  So  far  in  the  production  of  flame,  we  are 
sure  of  the  chemical  changes.  And  if  we  consider 
the  nature  of  hydrogen  when  set  free ;  the  substances 
with  which  it  is  found  in  combination  ;  the  process 
by  which  it  secures  constant  flame  ;  its  affinity  for 
oxygen  ;  its  power  of  bringing  away  with  it  the  par- 
ticles of  carbon  needed  to  give  light ;  its  process  of 
burning,  by  which  the  particles  of  carbon  are  caused 
to  give  light  till  others  are  ready  to  take  their  places, 
and  its  harmless  product — water ; — when  we  consider 
all  these,  we  not  only  recognise  a  substance  admi- 
rably fitted  for  an  important  place  among  the  need- 
ful things  bestowed  upon  man,  but  its  fitness  is  se- 
cured by  so  many  distinct  conditions,  that  intelli- 
gence and  wisdom  are  necessarily  inferred  from  such 
a  provision,  flydrogen  being  one  of  the  constitu- 
ents of  all  organic  beings,  we  naturally  seek  to  learn 
its  fitness  for  this  purpose.  There  are  many  things 
connected  with  physiology  that  we  do  not  yet  under- 
stand. But  we  know  it  is  a  law  of  all  animal  bodies 
that  their  particles  shall  change.  The  human  body 
is  like  the  constantly  consuming  flame.  Its  parti- 
cles are  dissolving  and  vanishing,  while  others,  pre- 
pared from  the  constant  supply  of  food,  take  their 


Nitrogen.  197 

place.  We  may  not  fully  understand  why  this  con- 
stant change  should  be  necessary.  But  we  know 
that  it  is  necessary  under  our  present  constitution, 
and  that  by  it  heat  and  muscular  power  are  both 
produced.  And  since  this  rapid  change  of  particles 
is  necessary  for  the  body,  we  see  how  beautifully 
adapted  hydrogen  is  for  the  important  place  it  occu- 
pies in  the  animal  system.  Its  oxidation  evolves 
more  heat  than  the  same  weight  of  any  other  sub- 
stance ;  and  its  product,  water,  is  not  only  readily 
eliminated  from  the  system,  but  it  aids  in  bearing 
away  the  other  substances  that  in  the  form  of  salts 
must  be  eliminated  by  solution. 

Hydrogen  has  also  important  relations  to  nitro- 
gen, so  that  in  the  decomposition  of  nitrogen  com- 
pounds, and  probably  also  as  water  in  the  air,  it 
forms  ammonia,  and  thus  brings  nitrogen  into  the 
most  favorable  condition  for  the  nourishment  of 
vegetation. 

The  third  element  to  be  considered  is  nitrogen. 
Design  may  be  learned  from  results  as  well  as  from 
the  means  by  which  the  results  are.  produced.  As 
already  intimated,  a  clock  would  indicate  design  by  the 
movement  of  its  hands  marking  the  hours,  though 
its  wheels  were  never  seen.  It  is  by  its  results, 
rather  than  by  knowledge  of  the  methods  of  its 
changes,  that  we  must  recognise  design  in  nitrogen. 
We  are  not,  by  any  means,  so  sure  of  its  methods 
and  conditions  of  combinations  as  in  the  case  of 
the  two  elements  already  considered.  It  constitutes 
four-fifths  of  the  atmosphere,  but  as  a  portion  of  the 


198  Natural  Theology. 

atmosphere,  it  seems  to  have  no  direct  relation  to 
animal  life.  It  has  mechanical  relations  to  them, 
and  the  wing  of  the  bird  and  of  every  flying  thing 
has  been  fashioned  with  reference  to  it.  For  if  the 
nitrogen  were  gone,  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere 
would  be  so  changed  that  very  few,  if  any,  of  the 
winged  animals  could  sustain  themselves  in  it.  But 
chemically  considered,  nitrogen  is  an  inert  body 
mingled  with  oxygen,  the  life-sustaining  element,  to 
moderate  its  force  by  dilution.  But,  why  it  may  be 
asked,  could  not  the  oxygen  alone  suffice,  since  that 
alone  takes  an  active  part  in  sustaining  life  ?  Cer- 
tain it  is,  that  organic  substances,  as  they  are  now 
constituted,  could  not  exist  in  pure  oxygen.  It 
would  prove  too  stimulating  for  animal  life,  and 
combustion  would  be  terrific  beyond  description. 

We  may  therefore  properly  say,  that  the  chemical 
relations  of  organic  beings  have  been  adjusted  with 
reference  to  the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  air, 
although  it  exerts  no  direct  chemical  action  upon 
them  ;  for  both  of  the  disastrous  consequences  just 
mentioned  as  resulting  from  an  atmosphere  of 
pure  oxygen,  would  follow  simply  from  the  quantity 
of  oxygen  breathed,  or  that  would  come  in  contact 
with  the  flame  in  a  given  time. 

When  the  oxygen  is  diluted  with  four  times 
its  quantity  of  this  inert  gas,  its  strong  chemical 
power  still  remains,  but  only  one-fifth  as  much  can 
be  brought  into  action  in  a  given  time  on  a  given 
space,  as  there  would  be  were  the  atmosphere  pure 
oxygen.  * 


Nitrogen  Compounds.  199 

We  have  here  all  the  advantage  of  the  strong 
affinity  of  oxygen  in  producing  light  and  heat,  and 
in  supporting  life,  while  its  action  is  beautifully 
regulated  by  the  nitrogen  with  which  it  is  diluted. 
We  see,  then,  its  fitness  for  a  constituent  of  the 
atmosphere,  by  its  very  negative  properties.  It  has 
no  taste,  nor  color,  nor  odor  ;  and  its  affinity  is  so 
sluggish,  that  though  mingled  with  oxygen  in  an 
aerial  ocean  more  than  fifty  miles  deep,  rolling  on 
the  whole  earth,  only  the  minutest  portions  of  it 
ever  combine  with  that  oxygen.  We  cannot  con- 
ceive of  any  change  that  could  be  made  to  compen- 
sate for  the  loss  of  nitrogen  in  the  atmosphere, 
unless  oxygen  were  increased  in  quantity,  and 
weakened  in  its  chemical  affinity.  And  there  is  no 
end  to  the  confusion  that  change  would  introduce 
into  the  relation  of  the  chemical  elements  most  use- 
ful to  man.  To  meet  his  wants,  oxygen  must  have 
the  power  it  now  has  to  combine,  and  it  must  be 
mingled  with  just  such  a  body  as  nitrogen  to  control 
its  combination. 

Nitrogen  is  confined  mainly  to  the  air,  to  organic 
beings,  and  to  those  compounds  that,  small  in  quan- 
tity, but  widely  distributed,  seem  like  a  special  pro- 
vision for  the  food  of  plants  and  for  the  use  of  man. 
Most  of  its  compounds  are  soluble  or  easily  decom- 
posed. They  cannot  therefore  make  up  any  portion 
of  the  permanent  crust  of  the  earth.  In  fact,  it  is 
chiefly  in  those  countries  where  rain  seldom  falls, 
or  in  places  entirely  protected  from  rain  and  run- 
ning water,  that  they  can  accumulate.     It  is  on  the 


200  Natural  Theology. 

rainless  islands  of  South  America  that  we  find 
guano,  a  compound  rich  in  nitrogen  ;  and  in  similar 
places,  in  caves,  and  beneath  old  buildings,  we  find 
an  accumulation  of  nitrates. 

We  have  no  direct  evidence,  then,  of  the  presence 
of  nitrogen  on  our  globe  in  its  earliest  history.  It 
is  only  when  we  find  the  remains  of  organic  beings, 
that  we  have  data  for  inferring  its  existence.  It 
may  have  been  brought  into  its  place  among  the 
elements  that  compose  our  globe,  after  oxygen  had 
struggled  with  the  other  elements,  and  changed 
them  by  its  Titanic  grasp  into  the  materials  that  have 
hardened  into  stone.  Certain  it  is,  however,  that 
nitrogen  is  essential  to  all  the  higher  organisms. 

It  is  the  nitrogen  compounds  of  plants  that  chiefly 
form  the  food  that  builds  up  the  animal  body  and 
supplies  its  waste.  For  this  purpose  it  is  well  fitted 
by  its  weak  chemical  affinity,  and  the  nature  of  its 
compounds.  It  is  easily  broken  up  in  every  combi- 
nation, and  the  resulting  compounds  being  soluble 
are  most  readily  eliminated  from  the  system.  Its 
compounds  naturally  formed  by  decomposition  are 
volatile,  and  thus  being  disseminated  by  the  law  of 
diffusion  in  the  air,  are  ever  present,  to  be  washed 
down  by  the  falling  waters  for  the  nourishment  of 
plants.  And  small  quantities  of  its  compounds  are 
undoubtedly  formed  by  the  action  of  electricity  and 
other  agencies  in  the  atmosphere  itself,  so  that  this 
inert  element  is  slowly  but  surely  brought  under  the 
power  of  plant  life,  and  through  plants  it  takes  its 
appointed  place  in  the  highest  organic  forms. 


Explosive  Compounds.  201 

Its  weak  affinity  gives  rise  to  explosive  compounds 
of  the  utmost  importance  to  man.  Gunpowder  is 
not  alone  for  war.  It  is  a  great  engine  of  power  for 
the  progress  of  civilization.  It  not  only  secures  civi- 
lized society  against  the  inroads  of  barbarian  hordes, 
by  giving  greater  war  power  to  civilized  man,  but  by 
its  agency  he  makes  his  way  through  the  mountains, 
and  overturns  the  hills  by  the  roots.  The  works 
accomplished  in  our  day  through  the  agency  of  gun- 
powder are  truly  marvellous.  Gun-cotton,  which  may 
be  used  as  a  substitute  for  powder,  and  the  percus- 
sion-cap that  ignites  them,  are  both  nitrogen  com- 
pounds. So  weak  is  the  affinity  of  this  element 
when  held  in  the  solid  state  in  combination,  that  by 
percussion,  or  the  direct  application  of  heat,  its  com- 
pounds are  instantly  broken  up ;  and  this  gas,  which 
no  mechanical  force  can  compress  to  a  solid,  leaps 
particle  from  particle,  and  crushes  the  solid  rocks, 
or  hurls  the  deadly  shot  and  shell. 

We  find  this  element,  then,  perfectly  fitted  for  its 
place  in  the  atmosphere  and  in  organic  beings.  We 
see  its  compounds  so  essential  to  living  beings,  tend- 
ing to  equilibrium,  from  their  distribution  in  the 
air  or  by  their  formation  in  it.  We  find  some  of  its 
compounds,  like  nitric  acid  and  the  peroxide  of  ni- 
trogen, most  useful  to  man  in  science  and  art,  so 
corrosive  and  poisonous,  that  were  they  to  be  formed 
in  abundance,  they  would  destroy  all  organic  life 
upon  the  globe.  They  are  simply  combinations  of 
that  nitrogen  and  oxygen  which  float  together  in  the 
air,  and  are  kept  from  forming  these  compounds 

q* 


202  Natural  Theology. 

abundantly  by  their  nicely-balanced  affinities.  But 
wherever  a  strong  base  is  found  like  potash  or  lime, 
there  nature  allows  nitric  acid  to  be  formed  in  large 
quantities  ;  because,  uniting  with  these  bases,  it  not 
only  becomes  harmless  to  organic  life,  but  remains 
a  reservoir  of  nourishment  to  plants,  and  an  import- 
ant product  for  man.  We  say  the  base  causes  the 
nitric  acid  to  be  formed  by  its  presence,  and  the 
older  chemists  called  that  kind  of  action  catalysis  ; 
but  if  no  man  can  satisfactorily  explain  it,  he  must 
admire  this  curious  relation  of  chemical  substances, 
and  admire  the  beautiful  and  beneficial  results  se- 
cured by  it.  It  is  one  of  the  safety-valves,  one  of 
the  regulators  abounding  in  the  machinery  of  na- 
ture, by  which  action  is  modified  and  changed,  so 
that  the  machinery  of  nature  never  gets  out  of  order ; 
by  which  the  inorganic  world,  even,  seems  to  be- 
come organic  in  its  vast  system  of  chemical  and 
physical  changes,  so  as  to  prepare  the  materials  and 
present  the  conditions  needed  for  all  organic  beings, 
as  the  human  system  prepares  the  various  secretions 
and  throws  them  from  the  body,  or  pours  them  out 
where  they  are  needed  for  further  use. 

We  find  this  element  also  giving  rise  to  a  series  of 
substances  most  explosive  in  their  nature,  by  which 
man  becomes  terrific  in  war  and  powerful  in  conquer- 
ing the  earth.  There  is  much  remaining  for  us  to 
learn  respecting  it ;  but  of  all  that  we  do  know,  not  a 
single  characteristic  can  be  pointed  out  that  does  not 
seem  a  special  provision  for  some  important  purpose. 

Every  organized  being  and  every  organic  product 


Carbon.  203 

contains  carbon  as  an  essential  constituent.  This 
element  is  among  the  most  familiar  and  most  useful 
in  its  relation  to  art  and  science.  It  would  chal- 
lenge our  admiration  for  the  benefits  it  bestows  up- 
on man,  if  not  a  particle  of  it  entered  into  the  com- 
position of  our  own  bodies.  But  some  of  its  highest 
uses  arise  from  the  fact  that  it  takes  its  place  among 
the  ever-changing  particles  of  the  animal  system, 
and  is  thus  constantly  oscillating  between  the  two 
great  kingdoms  of  nature,  now  appearing  in  organic 
products,  and  then  again  by  combustion  or  decay 
rushing  back  under  the  power  of  chemical  affinity 
into  the  inorganic  form.  Like  oxygen,  already  de- 
scribed, it  exists,  even  in  its  uncombined  state,  under 
forms  so  different  in  all  their  physical  properties, 
that  nothing  but  chemistry  could  convince  us  that 
these  different-appearing  substances  are  one  and 
the  same  element.  „ 

As  the  diamond,  carbon  is  the  hardest  and  most 
beautiful  crystal  known.  As  coal,  in  its  various 
forms,  it  is  one  of  the  chief  combustible  substances. 
As  plumbago,  or  black-lead,  it  is  soft  to  the  touch, 
so  that  its  dust  is  used  to  prevent  friction  ;  and  in 
strong  contrast  to  coal,  it  is  able  to  withstand  the 
intense  heat  of  a  blast-furnace  without  combustion. 
Certainly  the  diamond,  flashing  with  light,  as  though 
miniature  suns,  stars,  and  rainbows  were  gleaming 
through  its  facettes  ;  the  coal  upon  the  glowing 
grate  ;  and  plumbago,  one  of  the  softest  solids,  defy- 
ing heat  and  oxygen — are  three  wonderful  forms 
of  existence  of  the  same  substance. 


204  Natural  Theology. 

They  are  no  more  wonderful,  indeed,  than  the 
different  conditions  of  oxygen  ;  but  as  carbon  is  a 
solid,  its  different  conditions  are  recognised  by  the 
sense  of  touch  and  sight,  as  well  as  by  their  chemi- 
cal relations. 

Carbon,  like  hydrogen,  is  a  constant  element  in 
ordinary  combustion.  They  beautifully  supplement 
each  other.  Hydrogen  is  a  permanent  gas  ;  carbon, 
on  the  other  hand,  in  a  pure  state,  is  always  a  solid. 
It  is  this  physical  property  of  carbon  that  secures 
to  us  the  vast  accumulations  of  combustible  mate- 
rials in  the  earth,  so  essential  to  mankind  in  devel- 
oping the  arts  of  civilized  life.  The  inexhaustible 
beds  of  coal  are  a  wonder  to  the  world.  They  have 
remained  for  thousands  of  years  comparatively 
unused  and  unknown.  But  now  they  become  the 
very  basis  of  material  prosperity.  If  other  com- 
bustibles w^uld  in  part  take  the  place  of  coal,  how 
imperfectly  they  would  do  it,  and  how  soon  they 
would  be  exhausted  !  Our  forests  would  vanish 
like  frost-work  before  the  sun. 

But  the  mines  of  coal  would  never  have  been 
formed,  if  carbon  had  been  other  than  a  solid.  The 
vegetation  from  which  these  beds  were  formed, 
having  lost  the  other  elements,  was  left  as  pure 
anthracite  ;  or  in  connection  with  hydrogen  and  oxy- 
gen, gave  rise  to  the  different  grades  of  bituminous 
coals.  When  we  consider  the  dependance  of- man 
in  his  highest  state,  upon  these  different  varieties 
of  coal,  for  producing  light  and  heat,  and  working 
of  metals,  and  for  the  generation  of  steam,  we  see 


Properties  of  Carbon.  205 

wonderful  adaptations  in  the  nature  of  this  element 
itself,  and  in  its  chemical  relations  to  the  other  ele- 
ments, to  meet  his  wants  ;  since,  when  buried  under 
different  conditions,  it  gives  rise  not  only  to  coal, 
but  to  so  many  kinds  of  coal,  each  one  fitted  for  a 
special  use. 

Another  remarkable  characteristic  of  carbon  is 
its  indestructibility,  when  in  the  form  of  coal,  by  all 
ordinary  agencies.  Neither  water,  nor  the  oxygen 
of  the  air,  has  power  to  oxidize  it  at  ordinary 
temperatures.  It  defies  such  agencies  for  thousands 
of  years.  But  when  raised  to  a  red  heat,  it  not 
only  unites  rapidly  with  oxygen,  but  under  proper 
conditions  easily  secured,  the  process  is  self-sup- 
porting. Its  heat  is  of  sufficient  intensity  to  melt 
all  metals  on  the  globe  that  occur  as  oxides,  and  by 
its  heat  and  affinity  for  oxygen,  to  reduce  them 
from  oxides  to  the  metallic  state. 

We  hardly  need  to  show  how  unfitted  it  would  be 
for  its  most  important  uses  were  it  either  a  liquid  or 
gas,  or  were  it  possible  with  furnace-heat  to  melt  it. 
In  smelting,  it  can  be  mingled  with  the  ore  in  large 
or  small  pieces.  Intense  heat  only  increases  its 
affinity  for  the  oxygen  of  the  air  and  of  the  ore.  It 
remains  solid,  and  firmly  keeps  its  place,  even  while 
the  melted  iron  flows  through  it.  The  portion  that 
consumes  instantly  takes  the  form  of  gas,  and  is 
swept  out  by  the  heated  nitrogen,  thus  keeping  the 
products  of  the  furnace  pure  and  the  surface  of  the 
coal  constantly  free  for  increased  oxidization.  If 
man  was  made  to  use  fire,  he  must  have  two  just 


206  Natural  Theology. 

such  substances  as  hydrogen  and  carbon,  both  to- 
gether giving  light  and  heat,  and  the  products  of 
both  taking  the  invisible  form. 

While  carbon  in  the  form  of  charcoal,  or  mineral 
coal,  defies  the  action  of  oxygen  at  common  tempera- 
tures, it  has  no  such  power  in  its  organic  combina- 
tions. In  animal  and  vegetable  tissue  it  seems  to 
be  in  a  state  of  unstable  equilibrium,  so  that  por- 
tions of  plants  and  animals  readily  return  to  the  form 
of  carbonic  acid.  Who  can  help  admiring  this  beau- 
tiful adjustment  of  affinities,  by  which  carbon  can 
become  fixed  and  remain  for  ever  unchanged  until 
used  by  man,  and  also  be  so  joined  to  other  elements 
in  animal  and  vegetable  tissues,  that  when  they  are 
exposed  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth  after  death, 
they  rapidly  decompose,  giving  up  their  carbon  as 
carbonic  acid,  needed  to  renew  the  face  of  the  earth  ? 

The  properties  of  carbonic  acid  itself  are  emi- 
nently worthy  of  attention.  It  is  heavier  than  air, 
but  according  to  the  law  of  diffusion  of  gases,  it  is 
rapidly  mingled  throughout  the  atmosphere.  It  is 
thus  ever  present,  where  vegetation  is  found,  to  sup- 
ply it  with  the  needed  carbon.  It  is  highly  soluble 
in  water,  so  that  both  rain  and  dew  bring  it  down  to 
be  absorbed  by  the  leaves  and  roots  of  plants.  It 
gives  to  the  waters  percolating  the  earth  greater 
solvent  power  for  certain  substances,  so  that  they 
set  free  more  readily  the  mineral  salts  needed  for 
vegetation.  When  this  gas  has  reached  the  tissue 
of  the  leaves,  the  strong  affinity  of  its  elements  is 
overcome  by  the  magic  power  of  light,  the  plant  is 


Carbon  in  Organic  Beings.  207 

built  up  by  retaining  the  carbon,  and  the  oxygen  is 
restored  to  the  air.  It  combines  with  various  sub- 
stances to  form  salts  so  directly  useful  to  man,  that 
we  can  hardly  regard  them  as  other  than  a  special 
provision  for  him.  But  before  the  creation  of  man, 
it  played  an  important  part  in  the  animal  kingdom. 
Nearly  all  the  shell-fish  and  coral  animals  that  filled 
the  old  oceans  of  geologic  ages,  like  those  that  are 
now  piling  up  their  walls  and  towers  among  the 
waves,  built  their  masonry  of  carbonate  of  lime.  The 
vast  beds  of  limestone  and  the  quarries  of  marble 
are  the  products  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 

Like  the  other  elements  already  mentioned,  car- 
bon has  a  perfect  fitness  for  its  place  in  the  animal 
tissue.     In  partial  decomposition  of  the  tissues,  it 
forms  soluble  compounds,  and  finally  it  becomes  a 
gas  with  such  relations  to  the  blood,  the  tissue  of 
the  lung  and  the  air,  that  it  is  constantly  set  free 
from  the  system,  while  oxygen   takes   its  place  to 
produce  the  changes  necessary  for  the  continuance 
of  life.     We  do  not  pretend  to  understand  fully  all 
those  changes,  notwithstanding  our  advance  in  ani- 
mal chemistry  ;  but  we  understand  the  results  per- 
fectly.    We  see  carbon  making  a  large  part  of  our 
food.     We  know  that   carbon  is  consumed   in  the 
body  by  oxidization.     We  know  that  heat  is   pro- 
duced, and  that  the  compounds  of  carbon  are  such, 
that  this  element  is  as  rapidly  and  easily  eliminated 
from  the  body  when  it  has  done  its  work  in  the  vital 
processes,   as   those  elements   that   are  permanent 
gases.     We  find  it  then  a  body  with  great  diversity 


208  Natural  Theology. 

of  properties  and  relations,  but  each  property  and 
relation  apparently  a  special  provision  for  the  organic 
kingdom,  and  many  of  its  properties  evidently  hav- 
ing reference  to  man  himself.  We  have  no  doubt 
the  diamond  was  made  to  delight  man  by  its  beauty, 
and  that  the  coal  was  stored  up  for  his  use.  If  its 
affinities  were  different  from  what  they  now  are,  it 
would  not  withstand  the  agencies  of  nature  as  it 
now  does,  or  it  would  defy  them.  But  now  it  does 
service  in  untold  ways  for  man. 

How  easily  it  is  conveyed  over  the  world  when 
changed  to  gas  !  Having  done  its  work  as  carbon, 
it  must  now  be  distributed  and  brought  in  contact 
with  vegetation  to  perform  its  work  anew.  We 
need  not  recount  all  its  nicely-balanced  affinities, 
by  which  at  a  high  temperature  it  combines  like  a 
giant  in  strength,  and  then  under  the  soft  sunbeam 
playing  upon  the  leaf,  relaxes  its  grasp  and  becomes 
an  obedient  servant  under  the  ordinary  power  of 
life  in  an  organic  being. 

These  four  elements  now  considered,  were  they 
alone  known  to  science,  would  be  enough  to 
establish  the  proof  of  design  in  the  constitution 
of  matter.  Every  plant  that  clothes  the  earth, 
every  animal  on  the  land  and  in  the  waters,  as  well 
as  the  unnumbered  tribes  buried  in  the  earth, 
declare  the  wonderful  fitness  of  these  four  elements 
for  producing  the  myriad  forms  of  organic  beings 
that  have  appeared  upon  the  globe.  We  have  not 
here  simply  a  thousand  chances  to  one  in  favor  of 
design,  but  they  are  millions  to  one.     For  these 


Conclusion.  209 

four  elements  combine  to  form  all  organic  beings, 
forming  hundreds  of  distinct  parts  in  each  one,  just 
fitted  for  their  places.  Their  affinities  are  such 
that  they  answer  perfectly  the  needs  of  the  organic 
being  through  the  whole  course  of  its  life,  and  when 
broken  up  and  thrown  off  by  the  vital  processes,  they 
are  alike  prepared  to  appear  in  other  forms.  To 
create  such  elements  implies  infinite  wisdom,  as 
well  as  infinite  power.  To  believe  them  to  be 
uncreated  would  be  possible  only  to  the  ignorant, 
or  to  those  constitutionally  unable  to  weigh  proof. 

Such  a  vast  field  here  opens  before  us  in  the 
groups  of  elements,  in  considering  their  varied  pro- 
perties by  which  they  are  fitted  for  the  part  which 
each  one  plays  upon  the  globe,  that  we  need  not  go 
beyond  the  domain  of  chemistry  to  show  the  exist- 
ence and  wisdom  of  the  Creator,  and  that  His 
handiwork  extends  even  to  the  dust  of  the  earth. 
We  might  go  much  farther  in  pointing  out  the 
nature  of  the  elements  already  considered.  They 
show  design  in  their  adaptation  to  plant  and  animal 
life,  as  well  as  to  the  higher  nature  of  man.  The 
same  is  true  of  all  the  abundant  elements  that  are 
well  known.  But  many  of  them  have  such  plain 
reference  to  the  intellectual  nature  of  man,  that  we 
shall  refer  to  them  only  in  that  relation.  And  we 
have  now  come  to  that  part  of  our  course  where 
the  adaptation  of  the  world  to  man's  higher  nature 
must  claim  our  chief  attention. 


LECTURE   VIII. 

PROVISION  FOR  THE  INTELLECT  OF  MAN  IN  THE 
STRUCTURE  OF  MINERALS  AND  LAWS  OF  CHE- 
MICAL   COMBINATION. 

Preservation  of  man  requires  preservation  of  other  beings. — 
The  whole  plan  to  be  grasped. — Field  of  mind. — Animals 
remain  the  same. — Man's  physical  nature  conditional  for 
his  higher. — Provision  for  our  personality  to  be  expected. — 
Personality  of  the  Creator. — Mind  seeks  for  the  laws  of 
nature. — Physical  good  never  sought  for  by  the  great  leaders 
in  science. — Search  for  thought  a?nong  ancient  inscriptions. 
— Physical  and  intellectual  appetite  compared. — Mind  of 
man  and  the  order  of  nature  from  the  same  Creator. — Na- 
ture the  great  teacher. — Her  7nodels  perfect. — Proofs  of  the 
provision  for  mind. — Minerals. — Mind  must  be  taxed. — 
Language  of  Minerals. — Our  work  is  to  translate  it. — Per- 
fectly adapted  to  the  human  mi?id. — Crystalline  forms. — 
Progress  of?nind  in  unfolding  them. — Fundamental  forms. 
— Effect  of  crystalline  force  in  the  crust  of  the  earth. — Beau- 
ty of  crystals  for  man. — Taylor's  description  of  the  Russian 
jewels. — Bible  language.— Chemical  relation  of  the  elements. 
— Power  of  the  chemist. — Condition  of  progress.— Beyond 
the  reach  of  development  theories. — Man  has  increased  in 
knowledge,  but  not  in  mental  power. — Answers  which  nature 
gives. 

We  have  thus  far  attempted  to  show  that  this  world 
is  a  creation,  the  work  of  an  infinitely  wise  Being. 
We  attempt  to  do  this  by  proving  that  every  object 
has  a  purpose,  and  that  matter  in  its  ultimate  consti- 
tution shows  that  it  also  was  created,  being  fitted  for 
the  structure  and  support  of  the  varied  organic  beings 


Relation  of  Beings.  211 

on  the  globe.  The  constitution  and  the  collocation 
of  matter  considered  separately  proclaim  the  same 
great  truth  ;  taken  together,  they  give  higher  and 
grander  views  of  the  Creator's  character  than  either 
could  give  by  itself. 

But  we  have  considered  the  evidence  of  design  in 
creation  mainly  in  reference  to  physical  organiza- 
tion, the  preservation  and  growth  of  plants,  the  pre- 
servation and  enjoyment  of  the  animal  kingdom. 
We  have  incidentally  touched  upon  other  and 
higher  topics,  but  only  incidentally,  and  never  of 
set  purpose. 

If  we  commence  with  the  highest  created  being 
that  inhabits  the  earth,  we  find  full  provision 
made  for  his  physical  wants.  But  that  very  provi- 
sion requires  the  creating  and  preserving  of  other 
organic  beings  lower  in  the  scale,  which  are  also 
provided  for  in  the  same  perfect  manner.  And  thus 
we  find  the  provision  for  man  including  and  abso- 
lutely demanding  a  provision  for  a  complete  series  of 
beings,  animal  and  vegetable,  and  they  the  unnum- 
bered modifications  and  conditions  of  the  inorganic 
kingdom. 

It  is  not  enough,  then,  for  us  to  see  the  provision 
for  one  created  being,  however  adequate  that  provi- 
sion may  be,  nor  for  a  single  species,  more  far-reach- 
ing than  for  the  individual.  But  we  are  to  grasp,  if 
possible,  that  mighty  plan,  all-comprehending  as 
it  is,  by  which  all  the  species  of  plants  and  animals 
are  suited  to  the  globe,  are  related  to  each  other  as 
dependants  or  supports,  so  that  the  whole  kingdom 


212  Natural  Theology. 

of  life  is  preserved  and  all  its  parts  joined  and  ad- 
justed to  each  other.  There  is  no  doubt  proof  of 
design  in  the  structure  of  the  eye,  the  loop,  the 
hinge,  or  the  ball  and  socket  joint ;  but  it  is  in  com- 
prehending the  magnitude  and  perfection  of  the 
plan  by  which  all  these  varied  contrivances  make 
up  individuals,  and  the  individuals  are  adjusted  in 
myriads  to  the  globe,  that  we  rise  to  the  comprehen- 
sion of  the  power  and  the  goodness  of  the  Creator. 
As  in  some  great  manufactory,  we  may  see  contri- 
vance in  every  spindle  that  twists  a  thread,  and  in 
every  pulley  that  turns  a  shaft,  though  nothing  else 
is  seen,  yet  it  is  only  when  we  pass  from  room  to 
room  and  see  the  snowy  fibres  passing  through  the 
maze  of  machinery,  each  process  preparing  it  for  the 
next,  that  we  understand  a  more  comprehensive 
design,  that,  from  the  ponderous  wheel  which  rolls 
beneath  the  ever-falling  waters,  up  through  all  the 
lines  of  shafts  and  belts  and  points  of  steel  to  the 
loom  itself,  forms  one  vast  machine  for  the  produc- 
tion of  the  web. 

But  in  the  works  of  God  we  have  a  field  hardly 
entered  by  us  yet  in  this  discussion — the  field  of 
mind.  For  the  lower  animals,  the  world  needs  only 
to  be  adjusted  to  their  physical  wants,  and  their 
wants  are  the  same  in  all  ages.  The  lion,  the  eagle, 
and  the  insect,  are  unchanged  for  a  thousand  gene- 
rations. They  require  to-day  the  same  conditions 
they  required  ages  ago.  Under  the  guidance  of 
instinct  they  provide  food  and  shelter  for  themselves 
and  their  young.     Beyond  this  they  never  rise,  and 


Personality  of  the  Creator.  213 

to  meet  their  physical  wants  the  world  is  adjusted. 
But  the  physical  nature  of  man  is  not  the  end  of 
his  creation.  As  the  lower  forms  of  life  are  condi- 
tional for  the  higher,  so  the  physical  nature  of  man 
is  conditional  for  other  and  higher  powers  connected 
with  his  intellectual,  emotional,  and  moral  nature. 
Of  the  possession  of  these  powers  all  men  are  con- 
scious. And  if  this  earth  simply  provides  food, 
and  shelter,  and  animal  enjoyment  for  man,  or  if 
these  are  the  paramount  provisions,  then  he  is  an 
anomaly  among  the  creatures  of  the  earth,  a  being 
having  powers  the  highest  and  noblest  unprovided 
for. 

But  we  have  already  recognised  the  evidence  of 
the  personality  of  the  Creator  in  his  providing  for  the 
physical  wants  of  a  person,  especially  in  the  crea- 
tion and  adaptation  of  the  different  parts  of  the. 
human  body.  If  a  personal  being,  wise,  and  good, 
and  powerful,  were  our  Creator,  we  should  expect  to 
find  as  perfect  provision  for  our  personality  through 
all  the  works  of  nature,  as  for  our  physical  support 
and  enjoyment.  And  this  evidence  of  design  we 
consider  to  be  of  the  highest  kind,  because  it  con- 
stantly speaks  of  the  personality  of  God,  inasmuch 
as  the  provision  is  for  our  personality  ;  and  in  the 
second  place,  there  is  no  such  necessity  for  this  pro- 
vision as  there  is  for  that  for  our  physical  wants. 

We  may,  through  the  befogging  speculations  of 
development  theories,  believe  that  all  animals  and 
man  himself  have  reached  their  present  physical 
organization  by  a  principle  of  adjustment  by  which 


214  Natural  Theology. 

they  are  brought  into  harmony  with  the  forces  and 
conditions  of  the  natural  world.  But  the  wildest 
theorist  cannot  believe  that  the  mind  of  man  has 
gradually  developed  under  the  influence  of  those 
laws  and  evidences  of  mind  in  creation,  which  have 
flashed  upon  the  world  only  within  the  last  century. 
So  far  from  their  giving  origin  to  mind,  or  influenc- 
ing its  nature,  it  is  mind  that  seeks  them  out  from 
the  darkness  of  ages  ;  seeks  for  them,  too,  in  the 
very  foundation  and  framework  of  the  globe.  It 
hungers  for  them  before  they  are  known,  and  seeks 
for  them  as  for  hidden  treasures.  The  study  of 
nature  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  the  search  for 
mind.  It  brings  wealth,  indeed,  and  the  means  of 
physical  enjoyment ;  but  the  whole  history  of  science 
shows  that  these  were  not  the  primary  objects 
sought  for  by  the  great  leaders  in  scientific  discove- 
ries in  all  ages. 

They  have  ever  been  considered  the  dreamers  and 
impracticable  men  ;  because  ever  pressing  on  in  the 
dark  passages  of  Nature's  temple,  reading  her  ob- 
scure inscriptions,  they  have  had  no  products  to 
show  to  those  who  can  see  good  only  in  silver  and 
gold  and  fruits  of  the  earth.  They  have  sought  to 
commune  with  the  Maker  of  the  universe  by  reading 
the  ancient  inscriptions  on  its  pillars  and  beneath 
its  foundation-stones,  as  scholars  bend  with  wearied 
eye  and  throbbing  brain  over  the  old  mutilated  in- 
scriptions on  the  slabs  and  columns  unburied  in  the 
East.  These  do  not  expect  to  find  lessons  of  wisdom 
in  the  old  inscriptions,  which  they  have  never  read 


Search  for  Thought.  2 1 5 

in  other  languages,  nor  to  make  discoveries  in  art 
and  science  which  shall  lengthen  human  life,  alle- 
viate its  ills,  or  add  to  its  comforts. 

But  in  every  line  upon  those  old  marbles  there  is 
the  record  of  a  thought,  and  whatever  its  value  or 
worthlessness,  they  wish  to  throw  its  light  on  the 
great  background  of  human  history.  It  is  the 
search  for  thought  that  leads  men  on,  and  dignifies 
the  labor  among  the  mounds  of  Nineveh  ;  that  re- 
deems it  from  the  charge  of  childish  folly,  and 
makes  each  new  discovery  a  matter  of  universal 
interest. 

To  make  such  investigations  is  natural  to  man. 
Whatever  gives  evidence  of  thought,  he  wishes  to 
understand.  The  field  of  thought  is  the  home  of  a 
thinking  being,  the  home  of  man  in  his  highest  and 
noblest  state. 

No  exhibition  of  thought,  unless  connected  with 
evil  associations,  can  ever  be  regarded  by  him  as 
useless.  The  very  law  of  his  intellectual  being  for- 
bids it.  He  may  not  have  so  far  analyzed  his  in- 
tellectual powers  as  to  know  why  he  is  impelled  to 
this  or  that  investigation  in  nature.  He  may  not 
be  able  to  give  a  satisfactory  answer  to  the  one  who 
demands  the  use  of  his  study.  But  he  knows  there 
is  a  use,  as  he  knows  food  strengthens  his  body, 
although  he  may  be  in  happy  ignorance  of  such  an 
organ  as  a  stomach,  and  have  no  knowledge  of  the 
peculiar  office  of  carbon  and  nitrogen  compounds. 
He  cannot  tell  how  the  food  acts,  but  he  goes  on 
eating,  for  his  appetite  demands  it.     Tw  satisfying 


216  Natural  Theology. 

its  cravings,  the  good  of  the  body  is  cared  for.  It 
was  given  to  guide  men  before  science  could  guide 
them  ;  and  it  led  them  in  the  right  direction  as  surely 
before  the  days  of  Hunter  and  Liebig  as  it  does 
now,  with  all  the  light  of  modern  science. 

So  this  intellectual  appetite,  that  has  led  men  to 
dig  among  ruins,  to  wipe  the  dust  from  the  ancient 
inscription,  to  gather  as  a  pearl  every  monument 
of  human  thought,  to  scan  every  form  of  matter  as 
it  exists  in  nature  ;  the  crystals  and  the  flowers,  the 
animals,  from  the  largest  to  the  animalcules,  those 
now  living  and  those  sleeping  in  their  beds  of  stone, 
— this  intellectual  appetite,  not  a  thing  of  develop- 
ment, and  depending  upon  conditions,  but  an  ori- 
ginal controlling  power,  has  led  men  in  the  right 
direction.  It  has  led  them  to  labor,  though  unable 
to  defend  themselves  from  sneers,  and  unable  to 
frame  arguments  in  favor  of  what  they  knew  must 
be  right. 

It  is  this  fact  in  nature,  its  manifestation  of 
thought,  that  has  enchained  so  many  brilliant  in- 
tellects in  its  investigations  from  the  days  of  Aris- 
totle to  the  present  time.  This  was  the  charm 
that  bound  them  to  their  work  and  cheered  them  in 
their  investigations.  The  power  of  this  element  has 
never  been  more  fully  recognised  than  in  the  late 
work  of  the  great  master  in  zoology,  Agassiz,  who 
sums  each  of  his  first  thirty-three  chapters  as  ex- 
pressions of  the  thought  of  the  Creator. 

He  does  not,  like  the  alchemist,  claim  that  he 
has  made  the  gold  which  he  holds  up  to  our  ad- 


Thought  of  God.  217 

miring  view.  He  presents  the  gleaming  ore,  and 
says  :  "  Here  I  found  it,  where  it  was  poured  in  all 
its  purity  by  God  himself." 

We  have  now  laid  open  broad  veins  in  this  rich 
mine,  by  centuries  of  patient  search  ;  but  it  was  the 
particles  of  the  same  true  ore,  the  thought  of  God, 
that  led  on  the  early  searchers,  though  they  found 
it  in  grains  so  small  and  scattered  while  walking 
upon  the  edge  of  the  placer  that  the  multitude  could 
see  nothing.  But  as  the  miner  neither  creates  the 
gold  which  he  finds,  nor  the  gold  fashions  the  eye 
that  discovers  it,  so  the  mind  of  man  neither  creates 
the  order  and  harmony  which  Jie  discovers  in  nature, 
nor  did  the  order  and  harmony  originate  the  mind 
which  discovers  them.  They  are  both  the  work  of 
the  same  Almighty  Creator  who  formed  man  in  His 
own  image,  so  that  he  should  ever  delight  to  revel 
among  the  works  which  the  Infinite  Intellect  pro- 
nounced very  good  in  the  beginning. 

The  great  minds  of  the  world  have  walked  with 
Nature  as  the  scholar  walks  with  the  great  master, 
listening  as  he  unfolds  his  thoughts  and  defe- 
rentially propounding  questions  in  every  case  of 
doubt.  It  was  because  in  nature  there  was  thought 
embodied  ;  a  constant  unfolding  of  a  plan  drawn 
by  Infinite  Wisdom,  and  written  out  on  every  star 
and  mountain,  in  all  the  tribes  of  land  and  water, 
in  the  expanding  flower  and  glittering  grain  of  sand 
— that  they  never  tired  of  her  communings,  never 
grew  wiser  than  their  teacher,  but  felt  themselves 
to  be  children  to  the  last.      We  have  but  like  them 


218  Natural  Theology. 

to  enter  the  portals  of  this  great  temple  and  read 
the  thought  of  its  Builder  in  every  separate  stone 
and  in  its  joining  to  others.  Nothing  is  super- 
fluous ;  and,  so  far  as  explored,  nothing  seems  want- 
ing. Every  line,  seemingly  useless  in  the  separate 
stones,  serves  to  show  their  true  place  in  the  arch 
or  dome.  And  not  a  single  tint  could  be  lost  with- 
out marring  the  grand  picture  which  the  pieces  all 
conspire  to  form.  They  are  like  the  colored  glass 
of  some  grand  old  cathedral  window,  forming  a  pic- 
ture unseen  by  those  who  pass  on  the  outer  side  of 
the  temple,  but  to  those  within  giving  gorgeous 
tints  and  celestial  groups. 

We  spend  days  and  nights  in  our  libraries  com- 
muning with  the  great  of  the  past  ages,  and  we  do 
well.  It  gives  strength  and  beauty  to  the  mind  to 
drink  in  the  thoughts  of  those  who  towered  up  as 
beacon-lights  to  the  world.  We  make  long  jour- 
neys to  see  the  works  of  the  great  masters  ;  but  in 
this  temple  of  nature  which  opens  its  portals  to  us 
in  every  land,  we  are  surrounded  by  works  which  the 
great  artists  have  only  rudely  copied,  and  in  these 
works  we  commune  with  Him  who  by  wisdom  hath 
founded  the  earth. 

We  argue  that  special  provision  was  made  in  the 
world  for  the  intellectual  nature,  because  the  mind 
here  finds  sources  of  delight ;  it  is  constantly  urged 
to  renewed  investigations,  it  increases  in  strength 
by  the  work,  and  all  the  objects  in  nature  are  so 
related  and  conditioned  as  to  satisfy  the  mind  when 
the  true  relations  are  discovered. 


Mineralogy.  219 

We  step  first  into  the  lowest  vestibule  of  this 
temple,  the  mineral  kingdom. 

While  design  is  manifested  in  single  objects,  it 
is  mainly  in  the  relation  of  objects  to  each  other 
that  design  seems  to  have  special  reference  to  the 
mind  of  man.  Wherever  contrivance  appears  that 
has  no  possible  reference  to  the  welfare  of  the  ob- 
ject itself,  as  beauty  of  sculpture,  or  where  objects 
are  hidden  from  the  world,  like  the  pearl  or  diamond, 
until  brought  to  light  by  man,  who  is  capable  of  ap- 
preciating and  taking  delight  in  their  beauty ;  or 
where  we  find  objects  bound  together  by  mathemati- 
cal or  physical  relations,  so  that  they  are  brought 
within  the  ready  grasp  of  mind,  and  this  principle 
running  through  the  whole  sweep  of  the  three 
kingdoms,  we  see  a  more  direct  and  far-reaching 
provision  for  the  mental  than  for  the  physical  con- 
stitution of  man. 

Chemistry  has  revealed  to  us  more  than  sixty 
kinds  of  matter.  All  these  elements  occurring  in 
a  simple  state,  and  their  compounds  existing  as 
natural  products,  belong  to  the  lowest  department 
of  Natural  History,  mineralogy.  It  is  the  same  kind 
of  matter  as  is  found  in  the  higher  departments, 
but  it  is  combined  and  controlled  by  inferior  forces, 
chemical  affinity  being  the  highest  force  ever  mani- 
fested in  a  mineral.  We  have  in  the  mineral  king- 
dom hundreds  of  substances  making  up  the  earth's 
crust,  mingled  in  seeming  confusion,  and  many  of 
them  of  protean  form.  These  are  to  be  sought 
out  and  their  true  nature   discovered    under  their 


220  Natural  Theology. 

various  disguises.  At  first  view  this  seems  beyond 
human  power.  A  vast  globe  is  to  be  investigated. 
Were  there  no  order  nor  law  in  the  structure  of 
minerals  the  task  would  be  hopeless.  For  where 
there  is  no  relationship,  the  study  of  one  object  can 
give  no  aid  in  understanding  another.  Any  ar- 
rangement not  founded  upon  like  nature,  is  only  an 
arbitrary  placing,  which  is  no  sign  of  progress  in 
any  de;  artment  of  science  But  all  of  these  objects 
in  the  mineral  kingdom  have  a  definite  plan,  and 
each  one  has  a  relationship  to  some  other.  Upon 
every  one  of  them  are  stamped  the  characters 
by  which  its  nature  may  be  known  by  those  who 
look  with  patient  study.  And  nothing  in  the  de- 
partment of  mind  is  given  without  labor.  Any 
scheme  that  should  fail  to  tax  and  draw  out  the 
mental  powers,  would  so  far  be  wanting  in  evidence 
of  design.  We  find  here  a  system  that  leads  the 
mind  on  from  one  discovery  to  another,  ever  calling 
for  greater  and  greater  power,  and  ever  meeting 
its  highest  requisitions  by  the  perfection  of  the 
relations  when  discovered.  What  more  fitting  pro- 
vision than  this  can  be  conceived  of?  There  is 
engraven  within  the  very  structure  of  all  the  mine- 
rals of  the  globe  a  story,  an  autobiography,  that 
unrolls  the  more,  the  longer  we  gaze  upon  it.  It  is 
perfect,  for  the  writing  is  a  transcript  by  their  Maker 
of  the  nature  He  has  given  them  ;  not  like  the 
daguerreotype,  the  very  shadow,  -but  the  very  thing 
itself.  It  is  the  nature  given  by  God,  manifested  in 
all    these   sensible   signs   by   which    the   thing   is 


Language  of  Minerals.  221 

known.  So  beautiful  and  so  complete  is  this  lan- 
guage, so  valueless  except  in  relation  to  man,  so 
perfectly  adapted  to  him  as  an  intellectual  being, 
and  through  his  intellectual  being  becoming  such  a 
means  of  physical  as  well  as  intellectual  enjoyment, 
that  we  seem  to  hear  the  voice  of  God  speaking 
from  the  silent  rocks  more  audibly  than  among  the 
higher  forms  of  animate  nature. 

A  celebrated  mineralogist  was  once  asked  how 
he  knew  that  a  certain  body  had  fallen  from  the 
heavens,  which  he  was  giving  thousands  of  dollars 
for,  to  enrich  his  cabinet  of  meteorites.  His  answer 
was :  "  I  see  the  finger-marks  of  the  Almighty 
stamped  upon  every  part  of  it !  "  This  might  seem 
a  bold  expression,  or  as  indicating  some  wonderful 
or  unusual  property  in  those  bodies  that  fall  from 
the  heavens.  But  if  such  language  could  be  applied 
to  a  meteorite,  it  is  equally  true  of  every  pebble 
beneath  our  feet.  To  translate  these  marks,  to  read 
this  language  of  the  mineral  kingdom,  requires 
indeed  the  highest  conditions  of  mental  activity ; 
but  when  read,  it  is  a  language  not  of  our  making, 
but  simply  of  our  translating.  We  have  a  multitude 
of  forms,  but  each  form  perfectly  defined  ;  the  sen- 
sible properties  varied  without  limit,  but  all  combined 
forming  labels  for  every  species  in  the  mineral 
kingdom  as  perfect  as  the  works  of  God  ever  are  ; 
a  language  the  same  in  every  part  of  the  world  ;  a 
language  charming  in  its  variety,  beautiful  in  its 
accuracy  and  adaptation  to  the  human  mind. 

The  nature  of  this  language  we  have  already  indi- 


222  Natural  Theology. 

cated,  but  we  will  examine  it  more  in  detail,  because 
it  is  a  part  of  that  in  which  the  whole  book  of  na- 
ture is  written.  And  he  who  would  read  the  in- 
scriptions on  her  grand  old  arches,  and  the  poems 
in  her  grottoes,  must  not  despise  the  alphabet  even, 
which,  meaningless  by  itself,  is  the  only  key  to 
unlock  those  well-springs  of  knowledge  which  the 
unthinking  multitude  never  enjoy,  hardly  knowing 
of  their  existence,  though  walking  for  a  lifetime 
among  them.  And  let  not  those  who,  with  eyes  un- 
trained or  with  minds  never  roused  to  activity,  see 
nothing  but  chaos  and  chance  in  the  forms  and  pro- 
perties of  matter,  deny  the  existence  of  such  a 
language  ;  and  let  not  those  who  have  labored  hard 
and  successfully  in  its  translation  mistake  its  beauty 
and  completeness  for  their  own  work.  We  can 
present  only  the  mere  outline  of  this  language  ;  but 
enough,  perhaps,  for  our  present  purpose.  It  is 
made  up  of  the  signs  or  characteristics  by  which 
minerals  are  known.  These  signs  constitute  the 
language  which  students  of  this  department  of 
nature  have  been  for  ages  enlarging  and  enriching 
by  discovering  new  minerals,  and  by  studying  with 
more  care  those  already  known.  I  need  but  men- 
tion these  characteristics  of  the  mineral  kingdom, 
to  have  it  seen  that  they  tax  every  sense  for  their 
acquirement,  draw  out  the  mind  by  every  avenue, 
pour  in  knowledge  by  every  channel,  and  thus  vin- 
dicate their  adaptation  to  our  intellectual  nature  by 
offering  the  conditions  of  rapid,  well-balanced  men- 
tal development. 


Crystalline  Form.  223 

The  first  of  these  signs  is  the  crystalline  form. 
And  what  a  brilliant  language  is  here  introduced ! 
We  have  been  delighted  with  the  beauty  of  its 
characters,  even  while  unable  to  translate  a  single 
word,  and  perhaps  ignorant  that  they  were  signs 
of  a  language,  old  as  creation,  and  sure  as  the 
divine  oracles.  It  sparkles  from  every  grain  of 
sand,  glitters  from  every  well-filled  cabinet,  and 
streams  forth  in  joyous  gushing  beams  from  the 
"  Mountain  of  Light."  The  precious  gems,  like  the 
stars,  have  in  all  ages  delighted  men  by  their  bril- 
liancy. But  it  is  in  the  study  of  their  angles,  the 
planes  of  cleavage,  and  the  position  of  their  axes, 
that  the  ablest  minds  have  found  a  life  employment, 
and  seen  the  deepest  beauties  of  the  mineral  king- 
dom. It  is  interesting  to  trace  the  progress  of  mind 
verging  towards  truth,  peering  into  the  myriad  of 
crystalline  forms,  coming  nearer  and  nearer  to  the 
true  translation,  sometimes  reading  a  sentence  cor- 
rectly without  daring  to  vouch  for  its  truth,  or  able 
to  join  others  to  complete  the  story,  until  Haiiy,  by 
the  fortunate  crushing  of  a  crystal,  found  in  its 
broken  fragments  the  primitive  form,  the  first  intel- 
ligible key  to  this  hitherto  obscure  language. 

Minds  that  had  been  groping  in  darkness,  now 
saw  light  flashing  from  the  very  midst  of  that  dark- 
ness. Then  was  called  in  mathematics,  that  ever- 
ready  instrument  of  progress  in  science.  Whole 
volumes  were  filled  with  problems  relating  to  this 
department  of  nature.  What  were  all  those  prob- 
lems ?    Not  the  work  of  men,  as  we  too  often  think 


224  Natural  Theology. 

They  were  but  lines  in  the  translation  of  that  Divine 
language,  which  needed  for  its  completion  the  power 
of  the  whole  human  intellect.  But  the  fact  that  this 
translation  could  be  made  into  mathematical  for- 
mulas at  all,  shows  the  accuracy  and  universality  of 
this  language  written  in  the  mineral  kingdom.  We 
are  filled  with  wonder  and  admiration  at  the  fact 
that  amid  the  varied  forms  into  which  nature  moulds 
the  outer  surface,  as  if  to  hide  and  protect  from 
mortal  eye  as  a  secret  charm  the  primitive  form, 
the  mind  of  man  has  been  able  to  look  beneath  the 
cunning  disguise.  And  when  he  has  accomplished 
this,  she  rewards  his  labor  by  showing  him  that 
there  are  among  crystals  but  thirteen  fundamental 
forms  from  which  all  others  can  be  derived,  and  of 
which  they  are  modifications.  Such  a  generaliza- 
tion is  indeed  evidence  of  the  godlike  nature  of  the 
human  mind,  and  the  existence  of  such  materials 
for  thought,  such  means  of  bringing  the  rocks  of 
the  earth  by  one  grand  discovery  within  the  intel- 
lectual dominion  of  man,  shows  what  provision  was 
made  even  in  binding  the  elements  together,  for 
man  in  his  highest  nature. 

We  might  enlarge  upon  the  evidence  of  design  in 
the  action  of  the  crystalline  force  which  separates 
the  mingled  materials,  bringing  particles  of  the 
same  kind  together,  so  that  the  metals  and  ores  have 
been  gathered  in  veins  for  the  use  of  man,  and  the 
granite  and  marble  fitted  not  only  as  the  pillars  of 
the  earth,  but  for  his  service.  We  could  hardly  over- 
look the  utility  of  this  force  in  the  hands  of  the  che- 


Beauty  of  Crystals.  225 

mist  in  producing  some  of  the  wonderful  operations 
demanded  by  his  science ;  but  when  we  consider 
the  beauty  of  form,  the  brilliancy  of  lustre,  and  the 
richness  of  color  and  the  unchangeable  nature  of  the 
precious  stones,  we  can  have  no  more  doubt  that 
they  were  made  in  reference  to  the  intellectual  and 
emotional  nature  of  man,  than  we  have  that  the 
fruits  of  the  earth  were  made  for  his  food.  Was  it. 
chance  that  determined  the  constancy  of  angles, 
and  the  law  of  variation,  so  that  the  variety  of  forms 
might  be  without  limit  and  yet  perfectly  within  the 
power  of  man  to  comprehend  and  describe  with 
mathematical  accuracy  ?  If  the  problem  were  given 
to  meet  the  wants  of  the  human  intellect  in  the 
very  dust  of  the  earth,  can  the  most  learned  philoso- 
pher conceive  of  a  more  perfect  result  than  is  found 
in  the  law  of  crystallization  ?  And  that  law  is  only 
the  expression,  in  our  imperfect  language,  of  what 
was  written  in  all  crystals  when  as  yet  there  was  no 
man  upon  the  earth,  when  the  elements  were  created 
and  brought  together.  If  it  were  also  a  problem, 
to  provide  for  the  love  of  the  beautiful  implanted 
in  man,  no  higher  provision  can  be  conceived  of 
than  is  presented  in  these  unchangeable  gems. 
Their  beauty  is  glowingly  set  forth  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  Russian  jewels,  by  an  American  scholar 
and  poet.  "  The  splendor  of  their  tints  is  a  deli- 
cious intoxication  to  the  eye.  The  soul  of  all  the 
fiery  roses  of  Persia  lives  in  these  rubies  ;  the 
freshness  of  all  velvet  sward,  whether  in  Alpine 
valley  or    English    lawn,    in    these    emeralds  ;    the 

10* 


226  Natural  Theology. 

bloom  of  all  southern  seas  in  these  sapphires ;  and 
the  essence  of  a  thousand  harvest  moons  in  these 
necklaces  of  pearl." 

Even  the  glories  of  the  Holy  City  in  the  Apo- 
calyptic vision  could  be  set  forth  only  in  the  sym- 
bols of  gems.  Its  foundations  were  of  sapphire  and 
emerald,  of  topaz  and  amethyst.  And  every  several 
gate  was  of  one  pearl. 

I  have  dwelt  at  length  on  the  form  and  beauty  of 
the  crystal,  because  these  two  elements  have  such 
plain  relations  to  man  in  his  higher  nature,  that  it 
seems  impossible  to  refer  them  to  any  blind  prin- 
ciple or  to  any  agency  except  the  Ordaining  Intelli- 
gence that  created  man,  and  made  provision  for  his 
progress  in  knowledge,  and  to  gratify  the  love  of 
beauty  implanted  within  him.  The  beauty  of  crys- 
tals has  been  a  delight  in  all  ages,  for  the  great  ma- 
jority of  them  are  so  perfect  even  when  they  come 
from  the  earth  that  it  is  beyond  the  power  of  art  to 
improve  them  ;  while  their  structure  and  forms  are 
conditions  for  the  later  and  higher  developments  of 
intellect,  the  conditions  of  progress  without  which 
the  requirements  of  mind  are  never  fully  met. 

And  when  we  leave  the  domain  of  Natural  His- 
tory proper,  which  regards  only  the  outward  form 
and  structure  of  minerals,  and  examine  the  chemi- 
cal relation  of  the  elements,  our  wonder  is  increased 
at  the  order  and  comprehensive  law  of  chemical 
change  and  combination,  by  which  the  human  mind 
has  entered  into  the  dark  galleries  of  nature,  and 
read  her  formulas,  according  to  which  the  world  was 


Power  of  The  Chemist.  227 

made,  and  by  which  all  changes  in  earth  and  air 
are  now  going  on.  The  unchangeable  rocks,  and 
the  organic  beings,  that  dissolve  and  reappear,  have 
all  revealed  their  structure  to  us.  Not  only  the 
outward  form  of  the  crystal,  and  the  cleavage 
of  the  rocks,  and  the  organic  structure  of  every 
plant  and  animal  may  now  be  known  to  man,  but 
the  relation  of  the  elements  that  constitute  the 
structure  is  unfolded  to  him,  as  if  he  were  present 
when  that  relation  was  ordained,  in  the  morning 
of  creation.  What  higher  proof  that  man  is  in 
the  image  of  God,  and  that  the  Great  Father  has 
acknowledged  that  likeness  and  heirship  in  His 
works,  than  is  seen  by  the  chemist,  who  is  conscious 
of  his  power  to  command  the  fire  and  the  lightning, 
whose  eye  can  pierce  the  structure  of  the  granite, 
and  all  the  deep  foundation-stones  of  the  earth  ; 
who  has  power  to  change  the  waters  back  to  their 
elements  ;  who  can  trace  the  chemical  changes  in  the 
invisible  air  above  us  ;  conscious  of  his  power,  among 
the  unnumbered  compounds  of  nature  and  of  art,  to 
unlock  their  secrets  and  call  forth  their  elements, 
like  spirits,  obedient  to  his  will  ?  What  but  an 
emanation  of  the  Divine  Mind  could  thus  enter  into 
the  hidden  things  of  creation  ?  What  but  the 
ordaining,  Divine  Intelligence  could  bring  all  the 
works  of  the  universe  within  the  power  of  the 
human  intellect  ?  Do  you  say  that  there  are  heights 
yet  to  scale  ?  I  answer,  yes  ;  the  hills  must  ever 
rise  before  us,  or  there  would  be  an  end  to  progress  ; 
but   no   hill   appears   more  difficult   to   climb   than 


228  Natural  Theology. 

those  already  passed.  And  never  before  did  man 
stand  on  such  mountain  heights,  with  such  a  back- 
ground over  which  he  can  cast  his  eye  ;  with  such 
a  landscape  before  him,  inviting  to  new  discoveries, 
the  whole  conspiring  to  proclaim  him  the  offspring 
of  God,  standing  in  the  very  midst  of  the  temple 
reared  by  his  Father's  hand. 

We  are,  in  chemistry,  beyond  the  reach  of  all 
development-theories,  for  the  ancient  mountains 
that  have  been  waiting  on  their  rocky  thrones  for 
long  ages,  while  countless  generations  have  come  and 
gone,  now  invoked  by  the  chemist's  power,  lift  up 
their  voices  and  declare  the  power  and  the  laws  of 
chemistry,  the  same  to-day  that  they  were  when 
darkness  and  desolation  were  upon  the  face  of  the 
earth. 

And  the  history  of  man  declares  that  he  has  not 
developed  any  new  faculties  or  powers  under  the 
influence  of  these  laws.  He  was  the  same,  centu- 
ries ago,  when  these  laws  of  chemistry  were  unknown, 
that  he  is  now.  He  has  increased  in  knowledge, 
but  is  not  changed  in  his  nature  by  their  discovery. 
The  child,  who  has  never  heard  of  atomic  weights, 
and  whose  ancestors  have  all  been  as  ignorant  of 
chemical  science  as  though  Dalton  and  Davy  had 
never  lived,  may  be  just  as  ready  to  enter  into  its 
wonders,  and  to  grasp  its  principles,  as  though  his 
father  were  a  Liebig,  or  a  Bunsen.  His  power  to 
grasp  science,  comes  from  a  higher  paternity.  He 
is  the  offspring  of  God,  and  is  thus  ever  ready  to 
comprehend  a  portion  of  his  Father's  works. 


Relations  of  the  Elements.  229 

In  a  former  lecture,  we  referred  to  the  change  of 
affinity  under  varied  conditions,  as  in  the  case  of 
carbon,  and  the  formation  of  nitric  acid  from 
ammonia,  in  the  presence  of  a  base  to  neutralize  it. 
These  are  only  isolated  examples  of  changes  of 
which  every  chemist  avails  himself  in  chemical 
analysis. 

He  learns  in  what  condition  each  element  is 
weak,  and  when  it  is  strong  ;  he  learns  the  changes 
that  every  element  produces  in  combination  with 
every  other ;  and  as  he  questions  Nature  she  gives 
unvarying  answers  in  change  of  color,  change  of 
form,  and  in  the  evolution  of  light  or  heat  or  electri- 
city. And  when  he  finds  the  elements  combining  by 
exact  weight  and  measure,  and  their  order  of  affin- 
ity so  established,  that  he  can  foretell  the  order 
and  proportion  of  their  combination  when  thrown 
together,  and  count  with  absolute  certainty  upon 
the  composition  and  properties  of  every  compound, 
he  has  another  proof  of  the  adaptation  of  the  laws 
of  matter  to  mind.  The  laws  of  the  invisible  atoms 
have  been  discovered  by  men,  and  those  secret 
changes  which  constitute  the  basis  of  chemical 
science,  ordained  from  the  beginning  of  the  world, 
are  among  the  most  certain  subjects  of  human 
knowledge.  It  seems  impossible  that  one  should 
enter  into  the  rich  inheritance  which  chemistry 
now  opens  to  her  students  without  recognizing  in- 
finite wisdom  in  the  relations  of  the  elements  to  each 
other,  and  a  provision  in  them  for  man  as  an  intel- 
lectual being,  that  he  might  comprehend  there  the 


230  Natural  Theology. 

divine  plan,  and  wield  those  elements  for  his  own 
purposes,  as  his  progress  in  civilization  calls  for 
new  products  and  new  appliances  of  matter  and  of 
force. 


LECTURE    IX. 

PROVISION  FOR  MAN'S  INTELLECT  IN  THE  RELATIONS 
OF  ORGANIC  BEINGS  AND  IN  THE  CRUST  OF  THE 
EARTH. 

Ki7igdom  of  life. — Mathematical  law  continued. — Orders  of 
plants. — Animals. — Fossils. — All  form  one  picture. — Sci- 
ence discovered. — Manifestation  of  thought  in  Nature. — As- 
tronomy.— Enthusiasm  oj  Araturalists. — Geology. — Present 
changes  its  key. — Provision  for  man's  physical  wants  pre- 
supposes  his  intellectual  nature. — Crust  of  the  earth  shows 
design. — Man  multiplies  his  powers. — Properties  of  metals. 
Gold  and  Silver. — Platinum.— Mercury. — Iron. — Loadstone. 
— Metals  essential  to  man's  progress. — Fuel  for  man  alone. 
— Power  which  Chemistry  gives  him. — Plants  and  animals 
made  to  minister  to  his  physical  wants  through  his  intel- 
lectual power. 

We  pass  now  to  the  kingdom  of  life.  We  have  here 
the  manifestation  of  a  new  principle  that  is  con- 
nected chiefly  with  four  elements,  and  gives  rise  to 
more  forms  than  are  found  in  the  whole  mineral  king- 
dom. Vitality  gives  relations  and  developments  en- 
tirely unlike  those  in  the  lower  department,  and  not 
even  suggested  by  anything  found  there.  We  have 
here  the  relation  of  parent  to  offspring,  by  which 
matter  is  moulded  into  a  continued  series  of  similar 
forms,  not  by  a  force  in  it,  but  by  something  higher 
than  physical  forces,  giving  us  animal  and  vegetable 
structures  in  which  perfection  and  beauty  depend 
upon  the  constant  change  of  matter,  while  in  the 


232  Natural  Theology. 

crystal  they  depend  upon  its  permanence.  We  ha\  e 
not  here  stepped  beyond  the  limits  of  mathematical 
law,  but  it  is  obscured  by  more  deviations  than  in 
the  most  complicated  crystal.  What  myriad  forms 
start  up  on  every  side  !  Let  us  sketch  an  outline 
of  the  picture,  that  we  may  see  how  utterly  hopeless 
all  attempts  at  science  would  be  had  not  an  Ordain- 
ing Intelligence  fitted  all  things  for  the  intellectual 
nature  of  man, 

Here  we  see  the  plant  of  single  cell,  cradled  in 
the  northern  snow ;  its  kindred  lurking  in  every 
pool — the  fungus,  scavenger  among  plants,  feeding 
on  decaying  fibre — the  lichen  and  the  moss,  pictur- 
ing the  broad  rocks  with  fairy  groves  and  rings — 
the  grasses  weaving  their  carpets  of  green  and 
yielding  their  riches  in  almost  every  portion  of  the 
earth — the  fir,  dwarf  birch,  and  willow,  braving  the 
mountain  storms,  or  creeping  almost  to  eternal 
snows — the  pine,  whispering  its  sad  moanings  in 
dark  and  gloomy  forests — the  oak,  spreading  its 
arms  in  strength — the  orange  and  citron,  loading 
the  air  with  perfume — the  broad  palm,  lifting  its 
feathery  leaves  in  quiet  grandeur  to  the  sky,  and 
the  algae  binding  the  ocean  with  one  eternal  fringe 
of  rich  and  varied  hues.  Mingled  with  all  these  are 
thousands  of  other  plants  that  adorn  every  land- 
scape, as  rich  in  product,  as  curious  in  structure, 
and  as  varied  in  form.  And  all  these  are  minister- 
ing to  a  higher  form  of  life — the  animal  kingdom, 
that,  starting  so  near  the  vegetable  kingdom  that 
we  cannot  draw  the  dividing  line  between  the  two, 


Organic  Kingdom.  233 

bursts  into  a  wealth  of  forms  with  sensitive  life, 
ending  in  man,  endowed  with  thought  and  reason, 
with  power  to  understand  this  chain  of  beings,  as 
he  is  their  appointed  lord  and  their  connecting  link 
with  the  Maker  of  them  all. 

Among  these  we  know  the  polyp,  that  with  radi- 
ate masonry  builds  its  walls  and  mounds  strong 
enough  to  shut  back  the  ocean,  and  broad  enough 
for  nations  to  dwell  upon. 

The  waters  teem  with  fishes  and  shells,  the  air 
with  birds  and  insects,  the  fields  and  forests  with 
the  higher  tribes,  and  the  rocks  with  the  casts  and 
figures  of  those  that  lived  in  geologic  time.  We 
reckon  our  species  of  plants  and  animals  by  hun- 
dreds of  thousands,  besides  the  vast  numbers 
of  the  fossil  series.  A  single  species,  among  the 
cultivated  plants,  may  come  to  be  represented  by 
more  than  a  thousand  distinct  varieties. 

It  is  in  this  field,  among  these  countless  hosts  of 
the  kingdom  of  life,  that  the  human  mind  has 
achieved  some  of  its  greatest  triumphs,  in  tracing 
the  grand  design  by  which  the  vast  multitude  of  or- 
ganic beings  are  so  related  in  their  plan  of  struc- 
ture, that  the  whole  series  can  be  comprehended  by 
a  single  mind.  And  when  we  add  to  the  living 
forms  the  countless  host  that  the  rocks  contain,  we 
do  not  confuse  the  picture,  but  only  make  its  shad- 
ings more  perfect.  All  the  labors  of  the  army  of 
naturalists  have  tended  to  this  one  result :  to  bring 
out  order  and  system,  not  by  creating  them,  but  by 
reading  the  plan  and  discovering  the  grouping  which 


234  Natural  Theology. 

Nature  has  already  made.  She  prepared  the 
work  so  that  the  mind  of  man  should  be  fully  satis- 
fied when  it  was  comprehended.  She  prepared  it 
in  such  a  way  that  the  best  powers  of  the  mind  should 
be  called  out  in  discovering  and  comprehending  it. 
Nature  never  arranges.  She  does,  indeed,  put  her 
symbolic  language  on  every  stone  in  her  temple. 
But  though  the  building  is  perfect  to  the  eye  of  the 
Great  Architect,  it  is  a  perfection  of  relation  and 
not  of  position.  Its  blocks  are  like  those  so  pre- 
pared in  the  mountain,  that  no  sound  of  hammer  or 
any  tool  of  iron  was  heard  when  they  were  joined 
together.  It  seems  chaos  to  man  until  that  relation 
is  perceived  as  it  existed  in  the  Divine  Mind  and  is 
manifested  in  his  works.  The  blocks  are  scattered 
where  they  were  fashioned  by  the  Creator,  on  every 
continent,  the  islands  of  the  sea,  and  beneath  the 
waters.  Their  true  place  is  written  in  their  struc- 
ture ;  it  is  repeated  in  every  change,  from  the  un- 
folding of  the  germ  to  the  perfect  being.  But  it  is 
the  gathering  up  of  these  scattered  fragments, 
so  that  their  relation  shall  be  seen  by  man,  as  they 
formed  a  perfect  whole  to  the  omnipresent  eye  in 
the  first  creation — it  is  this  entering  into  the  thought 
of  God  by  the  army  of  naturalists,  that  is  the  great 
triumph  of  intellect.  This  shows  both  the  divine  type 
of  the  human  mind,  and  ajso  the  perfect  provision 
that  has  been  made  for  it  in  the  organic  world,  that 
the  whole  plan  of  structure,  and  the  manifold  rela- 
tions, should  all  be  perfectly  within  the  grasp  of  that 
mind,  and  be  adapted  to  its  nature  ;  adapted  to  it  in 


Search  for  Truth.  235 

calling  out  its  powers  and  in  meeting  its  highest 
conceptions  of  wisdom  and  skill  in  the  nature  and 
perfection  of  the  relations  discovered. 

It  is  this  search,  this  gradual  unfolding  of  the 
Great  Master's  thought,  that  has  quickened  the 
senses  and  strengthened  the  powers  of  Aristotle, 
Linnaeus,  and  Cuvier,  and  of  the  long  list  of  the -dead 
and  living  naturalists  almost  equally  worthy  of  men- 
tion. The  record  of  single  struggles  and  of  single 
triumphs,  had  we  time  to  recount  them,  would  not 
only  prove  to  us  the  intensity  of  thought,  the  tax- 
ing of  the  senses,  and  the  broad  generalizations 
through  which  each  of  the  great  naturalists  has 
passed,  but  would  show  that  every  truth  searched 
out  and  brought  within  the  domain  of  science,  by 
discovered  relations  to  other  truths,  has  repeated 
this  higher,  this  sublime  truth,  which  transforms  the 
world  from  a  mere  machine  to  a  living  interpreter 
of  God's  character  to  man  ;  this  truth,  that  all  por- 
tions of  the  universe,  its  matter  and  forces,  were  so 
arranged  in  reference  to  the  mind  of  man,  that 
he  might  comprehend  them  and  recognize  in  their 
Builder  the  omnipotent  Being  of  whom  he  is  the 
image. 

And  what  part  of  the  physical  world  is  there 
which  we  can  affirm  to  be  beyond  the  power  of 
man  to  unravel  ? 

The  stars,  whose  light  in  coming  to  our  earth  has 
darted  for  years  through  space — whose  distance  is 
more  millions  of  miles  than  we  can  comprehend — 
are   man's   figures  on  the   great  dial-plate  of  the 


236  Natural  Theology. 

heavens.  He  predicts  the  changes  of  the  planets, 
giving  us  a  map  of  these  heavens  as  they  shall  ap- 
pear some  night  in  coming  ages.  How  perfect 
must  be  the  image  mind,  that  can  thus  comprehend 
and  trace  out  the  work  of  the  Great  Original ! 

In  other  departments,  the  work  has  not  yet 
been  so  perfectly  done  as  in  Astronomy.  But  it 
has  been  well  begun,  although  science  is  in  its  in- 
fancy, and  much  remains  to  be  accomplished  before 
man  enters  into  the  full  inheritance  of  nature,  which 
belongs  to  him  as  the  offspring  and  heir  of  God. 
There  have  been  mistakes,  indeed  ;  but  each  true  stu- 
dent of  Nature  has  in  some  points  been  successful. 
These  mistakes  have  arisen  because  the  life  of  one 
man  was  not  long  enough  to  read  every  sign  cor- 
rectly, or  because  he  attempted  to  form  an  arch  from 
the  materials  at  hand,  while  the  key-stone,  perhaps, 
was  fashioned  on  another  continent,  reserved  as  a 
discovery  for  some  more  fortunate  workman. 

In  respect  to  material  for  study,  Astronomy  has  a 
vast  advantage  over  almost  every  other  natural 
science.  A  man  may  station  himself  in  any  portion 
of  the  earth,  and  the  heavens,  as  they  roll  over  him, 
will  give  him  the  means  of  forming  a  perfect  system 
of  Astronomy ;  while  one  who  would  study  the 
crust  of  our  earth,  or  discover  the  relationship  of 
plants  or  animals  upon  the  globe,  must  either  travel 
or  avail  himself  of  the  labors  of  others  who  can 
bring  to  him  the  results  of  their  explorations.  And 
the  labor  to  which  men  will  submit,  that  they  may 
bring  the  scattered  blocks  of  this  glorious  temple 


Geology.  237 

together,  till  the  eye  of  man  can  see  the  perfection 
of  its  work,  and  its  beautiful  proportions,  is  another 
proof  of  the  perfect  adaptation  of  these  works  to 
the  higher  nature  of  man.  No  other  worldly  good, 
but  gold,  has  ever  sent  men  on  such  long  and  peril- 
ous journeys.  The  gradual  unfolding  of  the  plan 
of  nature  so  enchains  the  mind,  that  ease  is  for- 
gotten and  money  despised,  except  as  a  means.  It 
is  never  valued  for  a  moment,  compared  with  pro- 
gress in  this  pursuit.  Linnaeus  not  only  roused  his 
mind  and  body  to  the  work,  so  that  weariness  and 
disease  were  almost  forgotten,  but  his  pupils  were 
fired  with  that  enthusiasm  which  sent  them  round 
the  world,  to  find  for  their  teacher  and  for  them- 
selves, new  lines  in  this  book  of  nature. 

There  is  one  department  of  science,  embracing, 
indeed,  the  whole  range  of  Natural  History,  in  which 
the  most  brilliant  revelations  were  reserved  for  our 
day,  and  where  the  human  mind  has  yet  its  grandest 
problems  to  solve  in  the  material  world.  Slowly 
from  the  mountain  and  the  valley  did  light  break  in 
upon  the  mind,  and  the  great  truth  become  esta- 
blished, that  in  the  bosom  of  the  earth,  where  there 
had  for  ages  seemed  to  be  mere  chaos  and  confu- 
sion, there  was  a  divine  volume  of  stony  leaves  with 
strange  inscriptions — the  record  of  unnumbered  or- 
ganized beings,  kept  through  long  ages  amid  the 
convulsions  of  the  globe,  the  warring  elements  of 
fire  and  water,  all  perfect  for  man  the  translator. 
He  has  already  read  enough  to  learn  that  the 
earth's  true  history  is  written  in  this  volume,  and 


238  Natural  Theology. 

that  in  this  apparent  chaos  there  is  perfect  order 
and  a  provision  for  man  as  an  intellectual  as  well  as 
a  physical  being. 

The  student  of  antiquities  has  no  lexicon  except 
some  chance  Rosetta  stone,  for  reading  the  strange 
inscriptions  on  the  bricks  and  slabs  of  those  an- 
cient, buried  cities.  Their  engravers,  and  those  who 
wrote  and  spoke  the  languages,  are  gone  ;  not  a 
single  letter  will  ever  be  added  to  those  already- 
written.  From  them  alone,  unchanging  and  un- 
changeable, must  a  key  be  found  by  which  the  world 
can  unlock  their  meaning.  Not  so  of  the  history 
written  in  the  rocks  of  the  earth.  No  Rosetta  stone 
is  needed  to  throw  light  upon  these  inscriptions. 
The  language  engraven  there,  God  is  repeating 
every  year  in  the  sunshine  and  storm,  and  in  the 
varied  forms  of  animals  and  plants  that  live  and 
die.  This  language  the  students  of  nature  had 
already  begun  to  learn.  As  they  opened  the  leaves 
of  stone,  the  forms  were  strange  indeed,  and  anti- 
quated, like  the  characters  in  the  old  black-letter 
volumes  of  our  libraries,  but  the  language  was  soon 
seen  to  be  the  same  as  had  been  the  mother-tongue 
of  naturalists  for  generations.  The  intellectual 
triumphs  in  this  field  are  too  recent  to  need  mention 
here.  The  ablest  leaders  have  still  their  armor  on. 
But  for  fifty  years,  there  has  been  no  such  field  of 
thought  as  Geology  ;  no  study  to  which  the  universal 
mind  has  so  turned  ;  none  that  has  thrown  up  such  a 
background  where  thought  can  rest,  or  run  back 
through  the  ages.     No  place  in  the  universe  can 


Provision  for  Man.  239 

man  reach  where  the  footprints  of  the  Creator  can 
be  more  clearly  traced  than  in  the  crust  of  this 
earth  ;  no  part  of  His  creation  has  more  manifest 
reference  to  man. 

It  may  seem,  at  the  first  glance,  that  design 
in  the  structure  of  the  earth's  crust  has  special 
reference  to  man  as  a  physical  being.  But  we  must 
not  overlook  the  fact  that  some  of  the  most  wonder- 
ful provisions  in  the  crust  of  the  earth  for  man's 
physical  wants,  presuppose  his  intellectual  nature, 
and  his  progress  in  civilization.  There  was  a  cer- 
tain wise  provision  made  for  him,  as  there  was  for 
the  whole  animal  kingdom,  in  the  outline  of  conti- 
nents, the  mountain  ranges  and  the  river  systems, 
and  in  the  preparation  of  the  earth  for  vegetation 
by  the  mighty  machinery  of  the  glacial  period.  All 
these  provisions  on  a  scale  so  vast,  and  with  adjust- 
ments so  perfect  for  the  support  of  vegetable  and 
animal  life,  are  so  plainly  ordained  by  some  compre- 
hensive Intellect  that  saw  the  end  from  the  begin- 
ning, and  guided  all  the  agencies  through  the  geolo- 
gic ages  till  the  earth  appeared  in  its  present  beauty, 
that  we  can  only  wonder  that  any  mind  can  be  satis- 
fied to  regard  them  as  the  accidental  results  of  fire 
and  water  and  living  things.  These  have  been  mere 
servants  in  the  Master's  hand.  We  see  that  second- 
ary agencies  have  done  the  work ;  but  when  we  have 
traced  the  plan  through  the  whole  structure,  that 
plan,  according  to  which  the  earth  moved  on  towards 
its  present  state,  by  a  process  like  the  growth  and 
change's  of  a  living  being,  until  it  was  prepared  for 


240  Natural  Theology. 

man,  we  find  recorded  in  the  rocks  what  Moses 
wrote,  in  substance,  three  thousand  years  ago : 
And  God  said,  Let  the  earth  be  prepared  for  man. 
For  this  is  a  summary  of  the  first  chapter  of  Gene- 
sis. And  we  wish  to  show,  that  in  addition  to  these 
provisions  which  simply  make  the  earth  a  fit  dwell- 
ing-place for  the  animal  kingdom,  there  have  been 
most  wonderful  provisions  made  for  man  alone  ;  but 
provisions  that  he  can  avail  himself  of  only  as  he  is 
an  intellectual  and  progressive  being. 

We  recognize  this  provision  for  the  intellect 
in  the  nature  of  the  various  elements,  and  in  their 
distribution.  The  metals,  the  coal  and  the  oil,  of 
each  of  which  the  earth  holds  inexhaustible  quanti- 
ties, are  for  man  alone  ;  but  he  can  avail  himself  of 
them  only  as  he  is  an  intellectual  being.  He 
reads  the  earth's  history,  translates  her  inscriptions, 
and  thus  becoming  master  of  her  secrets,  opens  her 
treasure-house  and  supplies  his  wants. 

With  these  treasures  and  with  this  mind,  behold 
the  wonders  that  man  accomplishes.  He  multiplies 
his  power  ten  thousand  fold.  He  drives  his  vessels 
against  wind  and  tide.  He  lowers  the  hills  and  fills 
the  valleys  ;  stretching  the  iron  rail,  he  whirls  along 
with  breath  of  steam  and  sinews  of  iron  that  never 
tire.  He  speaks  through  the  iron  wire,  and  his 
friend  hears  the  message  though  a  thousand  miles 
away.  He  peers  into  space  with  his  telescopes,  maps 
out  the  hills  aad  vallies  of  the  moon,  and  measures 
the  belts  and  bands  of  planets.  He  brings  to  light 
the  hidden  mysteries  of  the  dust,  and  living*  forms 


The  Metals.  241 

too  small  for  the  unassisted  eye  to  discern.  He 
arms  himself  with  thunderbolts,  and  with  the  deadly 
rifle  and  ponderous  cannon  he  becomes  terrible  as 
a  destroyer.  All  this  he  does  because  by  intellect 
he  seizes  upon  the  provisions  that  have  been  made 
for  him  alone  in  the  crust  of  the  earth.  As  there 
is  no  limit  to  his  intellectual  improvement,  so  there 
is  no  limit  to  the  provisions  that  have  been  made 
in  the  elements,  and  their  combinations  for  this 
nature  with  which  he  has  been  gifted.  If  we  con- 
sider the  gathering  together  of  the  metals  in  veins 
in  the  earth,  and  the  comparative  quantity  of  each, 
according  to  its  relation  to  the  progress  of  man,  we 
cannot  fail  to  recognize  a  wonderful  and  perfect  pro- 
vision ;  a  provision  depending  upon  so  many  condi- 
tions, that  we  seem  necessarily  to  infer  an  intelligent 
provider.  Like  the  many  cases  already  cited,  so 
many  conditions  must  meet  to  secure  the  result, 
that  he  alone  is  chargeable  with  credulity  who  refers 
such  combinations  to  chance.  If  we  consider  the 
properties,  physical  and  chemical,  of  the  metals 
alone,  we  have  a  marvellous  provision  for  man  ;  a 
provision  without  which  he  would  find  no  fitting 
means  of  embodying  his  grandest  conceptions  in 
material  forms  ;  no  means  of  becoming  lord  and 
master  of  the  earth ;  no  means  of  manifesting  those 
higher  characteristics  of  which  civilization  is  both 
the  offspring  and  parent.  In  fact,  without  the 
metals  mainly  as  they  are,  man  would  be  like  the 
bird  without  an  atmosphere,  though  spreading  its 
wings,  doomed  ever  to  walk  upon  the  earth. 

11 


242  Natural  Theology. 

We  have  first  the  metals,  gold  and  silver,  almost 
defying  the  power  of  oxygen,  beautiful  and  capable 
of  being  drawn  into  finest  wires,  and  hammered  into 
thinnest  sheets.  They  meet  the  wants  of  man  by 
gratifying  the  love  of  the  beautiful,  which  they  do, 
not  by  any  conventional  usage,  or  because  they  hap- 
pen to  be  rare,  but  by  an  intrinsic  beauty,  and  the 
power  of  retaining,  for  an  almost  unlimited  time,  the 
delicate  work  with  which  the  cunning  of  the  artist 
has  enriched  them.  They  also  meet  our  demands 
in  art  and  science  and  in  commerce. 

In  platinum  we  have  another  noble  metal,  without 
which  the  chemist  would  feel  his  power  wonderfully 
abridged.     It  seemed  to  be  discovered  just  when  the 
progress  of  science  absolutely  demanded  such  a  sub- 
stance.    If  the  chemist  had  ordered  a  substance  for 
his  use,  he  could  have  hardly  combined  in  it  all  the 
desirable  properties  which  he  already  recognizes  in 
this  metal.     Its  infusibility  is  extreme,  withstanding, 
as  it  does,  the  most  intense  combustion  of  the  ordi- 
nary furnace,  yet  welding  at  a  comparatively  mode- 
rate heat.     It  almost  defies  the  strongest  simple  acid, 
but  yields  readily  to  nitric  and  hydrochloric,  mixed. 
It  is  one  of  the  densest  known  substances,  and  yet 
is  capable  of  being  put  into  the  most  porous  form  of 
any  metal  known.     These  properties,  which  make 
it  so  valuable  for  apparatus,  and  the  chemical  nature 
of  its  salts,  strike  me  as  a  wonderful  provision  ;  and 
I  never  look  at  the  platinum  ware  of  the  laboratory, 
the  crucibles,  and  foil,  and  wires,  and  other  forms  in 
which  this  substance  is  used,  without  recognizing  a 


Mercury — Iron.  243 

direct  provision  for  the  intellectual  progress  of  man. 
I  might,  indeed,  add  the  same  of  many  other  articles 
found  there,  but  as  I  am  speaking  of  the  metals,  I 
omit  the  other  substances  for  the  present. 

In  strong  contrast  to  the  metals  already  men- 
tioned, is  mercury,  but  hardly  less  useful  and  seem- 
ingly necessary  for  scientific  research.  Liquid,  at 
common  temperatures,  it  dissolves  other  metals,  and 
by  its  aid  the  gold  and  silver  are  readily  extracted 
from  the  ores.  How  difficult  it  would  be  to  find  a 
substitute  for  it  in  the  thermometer,  barometer,  and 
many  other  instruments  known  to  men  of  science ! 
We  know  not  where  to  look  for  a  substitute ;  we  could 
not  well  get  along  without  it.  It  happens  to  be 
the  very  substance  we  want  to  complete  the  metallic 
series — very  unlike  all  other  metals — and,  because 
so  unlike,  filling*  an  important  place  among  those 
materials  which  seem  essential  to  human  progress. 

Too  common,  almost,  to  attract  attention,  is  iron ; 
but  it  possesses  a  number  of  properties,  so  marked, 
that  it  seems  impossible  they  should  be  studied  with- 
out producing  the  conviction  that  they  were  an  ex- 
press provision  for  man.  It  is  hardly  possible  for 
us  to  conceive  in  what  state  man  must  have  remain- 
ed to  this  day  without  iron  ;  how  low  in  civilization, 
and  how  powerless,  compared  with  what  he  now  is. 
Before  speaking  of  its  properties,  we  cannot  fail  to 
notice  the  fact  of  its  abundance.  It  is  distributed 
in  almost  every  portion  of  the  globe  ;  and,  certainly, 
in  such  large  quantities,  that  there  will  be  enough 
for  all  mankind  while  the  world  stands. 


244  Natural  Theology. 

They  may  weave  their  iron  tracks  like  a  net-work 
over  the  continents,  span  the  rivers  with  iron 
arches,  plough  the  ocean  with  iron  hulls,  stretch 
iron  wires  from  city  to  city,  cover  the  roads  with  iron 
cars,  and  build  iron  palaces,  and  yet  the  mountains 
of  iron  ore  will  hardly  be  diminished  in  size. 

It  might  seem  at  first  thought,  that  want  of  design 
is  shown  in  the  fact,  that  so  useful  a  substance  is 
seldom  if  ever  found  in  a  pure  state.  But  a  mine 
of  solid  iron  would  hardly  pay  for  working.  So 
hard  a  substance  is  it  in  a  pure  state,  that  huge 
masses  would  seem  to  defy  the  miner's  power.  But 
as  a  brittle  ore,  it  is  easily  quarried,  and  is  thus 
brought  readily  into  the  conditions  most  serviceable 
to  man. 

Its  first  property  worthy  of  special  notice  is  its 
chemical  relation  to  oxygen  and  carbon,  by  which 
its  ores  so  readily  yield  in  the  blast  furnace  their 
oxygen,  unite  with  carbon,  and  become  cast-iron, 
with  the  physical  property  of  expanding  just  as  it 
solidifies,  so  as  to  fill  the  mould  and  give  the  sharp- 
est outline  to  the  finest  figures  on  the  pattern. 

If  we  consider  it  as  cast-iron  alone,  we  find  it 
perfectly  adapted  to  its  purpose.  As  wrought-iron, 
it  is  obedient  to  the  fire  and  hammer,  taking  the 
thousand  forms  which  the  workman  demands,  bend- 
ing, yielding,  and  welding,  and  then,  when  cold 
again,  holding  the  form  he  has  given  it  with  the 
power  of  a  giant. 

Combined  with  carbon  it  becomes  steel.  And 
what  a  multitude  of  uses  the  very  word  suggests  ; 


Steel — Magnetism.  245 

It  may  be  cast  in  moulds,  it  may  be  made  soft,  like 
common  iron,  or  hardened  in  a  moment  almost  like 
the  diamond.  And  between  these  extremes,  any 
degree  of  hardness  can  be  secured  that  the  workman 
desires.  He  can  divide  the  bar,  and  from  one  por- 
tion make  a  blade  that  shall  cut  the  other  part  as 
though  it  were  wax.  He  can  obtain  from  it  the 
most  brilliant  surface  and  the  keenest  edge  ;  he  can 
form  the  strongest  links,  and  the  most  delicate 
springs,  that,  fine  as  a  thread,  for  a  whole  lifetime 
shall  never  tire  in  controlling  the  delicate  balance 
of  the  watch. 

All  these  diverse  properties  in  cast  and  wrought- 
iron,  and  in  steel,  fit  this  metal  to  become  the  great 
instrument  of  progress  in  the  hands  of  man,  but  it 
is  great  to  him  only  as  he  is  an  intellectual  being. 
Its  properties  are  developed,  and  its  uses  discovered, 
as  in  his  advancing  civilization  he  feels  conscious  of 
new  wants.  There  are  in  iron,  unbounded  possibili- 
ties. But  it  is  to  all  creatures  on  the  globe,  except 
to  man,  like  the  sand  or  rocks  that  make  the  soil. 

I  must  not  omit  to  mention  the  magnetic  power  of 
iron  and  its  relation  to  electricity.  One  of  its  ores  is 
the  loadstone,  which  was  for  ages  a  mere  curiosity  or 
wonder  to  men  in  early  days  of  science.  But  in  that 
curious  mineral  was  the  latent  power,  that  in  the  hands 
of  man  was  to  give  him  the  magnetic  needle,  and  in 
wider  application,  the  magnetic  telegraph.  The 
needle  of  steel,  touched  with  this  mysterious  stone, 
thenceforth  became  a  guide  to  the  mariner  upon  the 
deep,  when  storms  and  clouds  shut  out  the  friendly 


246  Natural  Theology. 

stars.  And  when  the  electric  fluid  was  made  to  de- 
velop magnetism  at  will,  and  the  iron  wire  was  found 
to  be  a  pathway  for  the  lightning,  the  conditions  and 
properties  were  becoming  known,  that  in  the  end 
should  bring  distant  nations  as  near  together  as 
neighbors  of  the  same  village.  The  transient  mag-1 
netic  power  of  iron,  the  permanent  magnetic  power 
of  steel,  either  of  which  no  man  can  explain,  and  all 
the  relations  of  electricity  to  iron  and  air  and 
chemical  action,  constitute  the  conditions  of  this 
grand  triumph  of  man  over  the  material  world.  No 
Arabian  tales  of  magic  power,  in  commanding  de- 
mons of  earth  and  air,  can  equal  the  power  of  man, 
who,  sitting  by  his  battery,  calls,  by  the  touch  of 
the  finger,  "  spirits  from  the  vasty  deep,"  and  sends 
them  with  the  speed  of  light  with  messages  a  thou- 
sand miles  away.  But  iron  is  the  most  potent  wand 
he  wields.  Take  this  from  him  and  he  is  almost 
powerless. 

What  need  of  dwelling  on  the  other  materials, 
that  either  alone,  or  in  combination,  respond  to  the 
increasing  demands  of  science  and  art  ?  How  every 
property  possible  to  be  conceived  of  as  desirable,  is 
found  in  some  ore,  or  in  its  alloy.  Who  can  recount 
the  multifarious  uses  of  copper,  and  lead,  and  tin, 
and  zinc,  and  all  their  combinations,  meeting  the 
varied  wants  of  man,  but  needful  to  him  only  as  an 
intellectual  being ! 

Nor  is  it  to  the  metals,  alone,  that  we  look  for  this 
special  relation  to  man,  but  to  almost  every  element 
found  in  abundance  on  the  globe.     We  have  already 


Fuel.  247 

referred  to  this  adaptation  to  his  intellect,  in  their 
chemical  relations,  thus  making  the  science  of  che- 
mistry possible.  We  regard  every  natural  science, 
indeed,  only  as  an  expression  of  the  relation  of  that 
part  of  nature  to  the  mind  of  man.  But  in  addi- 
tion to  this  chemical  relation  of  the  elements  to  each 
other,  so  beautiful  and  satisfactory,  there  is  an  adap- 
tation of  each  and  all  of  them  as  servants  of  man, 
as  ministering  to  his  physical  wants  ;  but  minister- 
ing to  him  only  because,  by  his  intellect,  he  first 
subdues  them,  entering  into  the  secrets  of  their 
nature,  and  thus  finding  in  them  means  of  perpetual 
improvement. 

We  have  already  referred,  in  another  connection, 
to  the  evidence  of  design  in  the  relations  of  carbon 
and  hydrogen  as  fuel.  But  the  very  idea  of  fuel,  as 
ministering  to  physical  comfort,  implies  intellect. 
Fire  is  the  servant  of  man.  No  race  has  been  found 
so  degraded  as  to  be  without  it,  and  there  is  no  his- 
tory to  tell  of  men  who  were  ignorant  of  its  use. 
No  mere  animal  has  been  found  with  any  power  to 
secure  it,  or  with  any  apparent  knowledge  of  its  use, 
except  as  a  source  of  comfort,  supplied  to  him  by 
man.  Fire  is  a  provision  for  man  alone  ;  and  every 
provision  in  nature  for  combustion,  is  either  without 
significance,  or  it  has  reference  to  the  intellectual 
nature.  The  nature  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  the 
beds  of  coal,  the  fountains  of  oil,  the  accumula- 
tion of  woody  fibre  in  the  trunk  of  the  tree  as  heart- 
wood,  which  is  of  no  special  service  to  the  tree  itself 
— all  of  these  substances,  with  their  nicely-balanced 


248  Natural  Theology. 

affinities,  which  we  considered  when  treating  of  the 
chemical  elements— all  of  these  have  relations  to  mind 
alone.  If,  then,  we  consider  the  physical  provisions 
for  man,  we  find  the  most  abundant  evidence  that 
his  highest  physical  good  was  to  be  secured  only 
through  the  exercise  of  his  intellect.  The  coal,  and 
wood,  and  metals,  and  marbles,  supplement  his  high- 
er nature.  They  make  a  world  fitted  for  a  progres- 
sive being.  They  minister,  in  their  natural  forms, 
to  the  good  of  all  organic  beings  ;  but  in  their  rela- 
tion to  man,  they  rise  into  another  plane  and  sup- 
plement his  power,  as  the  hand  of  man,  in  its  cun- 
ning, rises  above  the  fin  of  the  fish,  or  the  wing  of 
the  bird. 

At  no  time  before  in  the  history  of  the  world 
was  there  anything  like  the  proof  of  the  perfect 
adaptation  of  the  world  to  the  higher  nature  of  man 
that  we  have  now.  When  before  could  he  search 
the  earth  for  treasures  as  he  can  now  ?  He  has  but 
just  entered  into  the  fullness  of  this  inheritance. 
When  before  had  he  the  art  of  moulding  these  pro- 
ducts into  such  unnumbered  forms  for  his  comfort 
and  delight  ?  He  draws  and  moulds  the  metals 
into  a  thousand  forms,  and  the  sands  are  melted 
into  crystal  glass.  He  takes  up  a  dull  ore  from  the 
earth,  and  by  the  magic  power  of  chemistry  throws 
it  back  changed  to  the  finest  pigments.  We  admire 
the  multiplied  means  of  enjoyment  which  civilization 
now  has  at  its  command.  We  admire  that  power  in 
man  that  enables  him  to  compass  the  earth,  and 
bind  its  forces,  and  make  them  his  servants.     But 


Fruits  and  Grains.  249 

how  powerless  the  intellect  of  man  would  be  without 
materials  fitted  to  his  powers  ! 

It  is  not  in  the  crust  of  the  earth  alone  that  the 
intellect  of  man  has  been  considered,  but  also  in 
the  structure  of  the  animals  and  plants  that  now 
live.  The  fruits  came  to  their  perfection,  and  burst 
into  that  wealth  of  variety  which  we  now  enjoy, 
only  under  the  fostering  care  of  an  intellectual 
being.  The  precious  grains  of  the  earth,  prepared 
undoubtedly  for  man,  can  supply  his  wants  only 
through  the  exercise  of  mind.  They  must  be  cared 
for  ;  the  soil  must  be  prepared,  and  the  grains  must 
be  scattered,  and  the  harvest  must  be  gathered,  by 
man.  Nor  is  it  yet  proper  food  for  him.  The 
grains  that  supply  so  large  a  portion  of  the  race  are 
certainly  a  provision  for  their  physical  wants,  but 
these  grains  would  either  perish  from  the  earth,  or 
be  almost  useless  to  man  were  he  no  higher  in 
mental  power  than  the  lower  animals.  The  guid- 
ing mind  of  man  is  needed  to  preserve  and  prepare 
them  for  his  food. 

Thus  it  is  that  every  physical  want  of  man  in  his 
highest  state,  is  provided  for,  not  by  the  products  of 
the  world  in  their  natural  state,  as  the  lower  animals 
are  supplied,  or  as  man  may  in  some  places  be  suj> 
plied  while  in  a  state  of  barbarism. 

But  man  in  his  upward  progress,  finds  ever  open- 
ing before  him  new  possibilities,  new  sources  of 
delight  and  progress,  in  the  elements  and  in  the 
organic  beings  that  abound  on  the  earth.  When 
we  consider  what  man  has  done,  in  chaining  the 


250  Natural  Theology. 

forces  of  nature,  in  changing  the  form  of  the  chemi- 
cal elements,  in  calling  to  his  service  the  animal 
and  vegetable  kingdoms,  making  them  all  contri- 
bute to  his  comfort,  giving  food,  and  shelter,  and 
clothing,  all  through  the  power  of  mind,  we  under- 
stand that  sovereignty  delegated  to  him  by  the 
Creator,  when  he  said  of  man,  "Let  us  make  man 
in  our  image,  after  our  likeness ;  and  let  him  have 
dominion  over  the  fish  of  the  sea,  and  over  the  fowl 
of  the  air,  and  over  the  cattle,  and  over  all  the  earth, 
and  over  every  creeping  thing  that  creepeth  upon  the 
earth." 


LECTURE  X. 

PROVISION  FOR  THE  EMOTIONAL  NATURE  AND  THE 
VARIED  INTELLECTUAL  TASTES  AND  POWERS  OF 
MEN. 

Love  of  the  beautiful. — Provision  for  it  in  nature. —  Taste. — 
Fine  Arts  founded  upon  nature. — Poetry. — Bible  lan- 
guage.— Painting  and  sculpture. — Music. — Conditions  ?ie- 
cessary  for  it. — Beauty  of  outline  and  color. — Clouds. — 
Crystals. — Plants. — Increase  of  beauty  in  leaf  and  flower. — 
Double  flowers. — Microscopic  animals. — Corals. — Jelly- 
fishes. — Shells. — Their  beauty  not  for  themselves. — In- 
sects.— Distribution  of  their  color. —  Vertebrates. — Beauty 
of  fossils. — Grandeur  and  sublimity. — Emotional  nature 
perfect  in  man  ages  ago. — Different  intellectual  tastes  pro- 
vided for. — Advance  in  science  and  art  thus  secured. — 
Sciences  yet  to  be  unfolded. 

We  have  considered,  in  the  last  two  lectures,  the 
adaptations  of  the  world  to  the  intellectual  nature 
of  man.  This  adaptation  was  shown  to  exist  in  that 
order  and  harmony,  that  mathematical  and  mechani- 
cal connection  of  the  objects  in  nature  by  which  the 
mind  of  man  is  not  only  able  to  grasp  the  plan  of 
creation,  but  finds  in  the  study  of  natural  objects  the 
constant  source  of  mental  improvement  and  delight. 
We  also  showed  that  the  provisions  made  for  the 
physical  nature  of  man  have  reference  to  his  intel- 
lectual nature,  as  it  is  only  through  mind  that  he  can 
avail  himself  of  the  metals  and  forces  of  nature, 


252  Natural  Theology. 

and  those  products  most  valuable  for  food, -raiment, 
and  shelter. 

But  it  is  not  alone  the  physical  welfare  of  man, 
and  that  pure  intellect  which  is  satisfied  with  weight 
and  measure  and  established  relation,  that  have  been 
provided  for,  in  constituting  the  elements  and  the 
varied  objects  in  the  world.  There  has  been  given 
to  man  an  emotional  nature,  one  manifestation  of 
which  is  the  love  of  the  beautiful.  And  for  the 
gratification  of  this  love  there  has  been  made  most 
ample  and  special  provision.  We  have  made  some 
reference  to  this  fact  in  the  subjects  already  treated 
of.  For  we  can  draw  no  dividing  lines  in  the  works 
of  nature  that  shall  completely  separate  one  provi- 
sion from  another.  Beauty  and  utility  are  in  gene- 
ral so  interwoven,  that  while  we  speak  of  one,  the 
other  can  never  be  entirely  ignored.  But  the  pro- 
vision for  man,  as  a  lover  of  the  beautiful,  is  as 
ample  and  as  striking  as  any  other  that  has  been 
made.  Nature  is  to  him  the  cosmos  revealing  a 
mind  and  speaking  to  the  mind  in  its  varied  lan- 
guage of  order,  proportion,  and  grandeur,  thus  ever, 
awakening  the  emotions  of  beauty  and  sublimity. 
The  faculty  or  constitution  of  the  mind  by  which 
we  perceive  these  qualities  and  enjoy  these  emo- 
tions of  beauty  and  sublimity,  is  Taste.  To  aid  in 
gratifying  this  faculty  we  have  the  fine  arts,  which 
are  the  creations  of  genius  to  supply  the  demands  of 
Taste.  But  genius  would  be  powerless  without  the 
patterns  which  the  Great  Master  has  given  in  the 
things   he  has  created.      As   that  is  true  science 


The  Fine  Arts.  253 

alone  that  reveals  the  relations  established  by  the 
creative  Intellect,  so  the  whole  history  of  the  fine 
arts  shows  that  God  has  here  established  immuta- 
ble relations  between  the  love  of  the  beautiful  im- 
planted by  Him  in  man,  and  the  world  which  he  has 
fitted  up  for  man's  abode.  No  genius  can  ignore 
this  relation  and  succeed  in  any  one  of  the  fine  arts, 
any  more  than  the  intellect  of  man  can  make  a 
science.  Those  works  of  art  have  alone  stood  the 
test  of  time  that  approach  the  patterns  God  has 
given.  The  voice  of  the  Most  High  speaks  to  the 
artist  as  to  Moses  in  the  building  of  the  Tabernacle  : 
"And  look  that  thou  make  them  after  the  pattern 
which  was  showed  thee  in  the  mount" 

All  the  creations  of  poetry,  sculpture,  and  paint- 
ing, are  either  reproductions  of  natural  scenes  and 
natural  objects,  or  embellished  by  them.  Glance 
for  a  moment  at  your  favorite  authors  ;  the  poet, 
whose  sweet  song  charms  and  gives  enjoyment  by 
its  refining  power ;  the  orator,  whose  words  enchained 
every  listener  ;  and  see  how  much  they  were  in- 
debted for  their  influence  over  the  mind  to  symbols 
drawn  from  nature.  Their  words  may  be  joined  by  the 
rules  of  grammar  and  logic  ;  they  may  convince  the 
intellect  by  the  force  of  reasoning ;  they  may  arouse 
the  will  by  the  plea  of  interest ;  but  when  they  would 
charm  with  beauty,  they  must  reach  forth  for  the 
gems  and  flowers  of  nature.  The  stars  glitter 
in  literature  almost  as  they  do  in  the  heavens.  The 
bands  of  Orion  and  the  sweet  influence  of  the 
Pleiades,  and  all  the  famous  constellations,  have  beau- 


254  Natural  Theology. 

tified  almost  every  language.  There  is  force  and 
beauty  even  in  the  language  of  the  savage  borrowed 
from  natural  objects.  When  the  poet  would  sing 
of  the  Indians'  legends  and  traditions  he  repeats 
them  as  he  heard  them  from  the  lips  of  Nawadaha, 
as  he  found  them 

"  In  the  bird's  nest  of  the  forest, 
In  the  lodges  of  the  beaver, 
In  the  hoof-prints  of  the  bison, 
In  the  eyry  of  the  eagle." 

All  along  the  stream  of  ancient  song  the  beauties 
of  the  natural  world  are  set  in  thick  and  sweet  pro- 
fusion, not  gathered  into  clusters,  but  adding  to  the 
richness  of  the  poetic  imagery  as  flowers  deck  the 
meadows.  And  the  soft  numbers  seem  to  flow  like 
crystal  streams  reflecting  the  nodding  verdure  on 
their  grassy  banks.  How  beautifully  are  they 
braided  into  song  as  a  chaplet  for  the  tomb  of  the 
Grecian  poet. 

"  Ye  evergreens,  around  the  tomb 

Of  Sophocles  your  osiers  braid, 
And  ivy,  spread  thy  pensive  gloom 

To  form  above  the  bard  a  shade. 
And  intertwine  the  blushing  rose 

And  gentle  vine  your  leaves  among. 
Thus  gemmed  with  beauty  shall  your  boughs 

Prove  emblems  of  his  graceful  song." 

Poems  in  our  own  language  speak  as  plainly  of  the 
power  of  the  natural  world  to  delight  man  by  dis- 


Bible  Language.  255 

plays  of  beauty  and  of  grandeur.  To  meet  the 
demands  of  taste  implanted  in  man,  the  sons  of 
genius  and  of  song  have  gone  forth  into  nature  for 
their  subjects  and  their  illustrations.  So  that  every 
poet,  worthy  of  the  name,  in  every  language  and  in 
every  age,  whether  he  would  or  not,  has  been  a 
priest  of  the  Most  High,  in  making  known  the  per- 
fection of  His  works  in  their  adaptation  to  the  emo- 
tional nature  of  man. 

If  we  needed  higher  illustration  not  only  of  the 
power  of  natural  objects  to  adorn  language  and  gra- 
tify taste,  but  proof  that  here  we  find  the  highest 
conceivable  beauty,  we  should  appeal  at  once  to  the 
Bible.  Those  most  opposed  to  its  teachings  have 
acknowledged  the  beauty  of  its  language  ;  and  this 
is  due  mainly  to  the  exquisite  use  of  natural  objects 
for  illustration.  It  does  indeed  draw  from  every 
field.  But  when  the  emotional  nature  was  to  be 
appealed  to,  the  reference  was  at  once  to  natural 
objects  ;  and  throughout  all  its  books,  the  stars  and 
flowers  and  gems  are  prominent  as  illustrations  of 
the  beauties  of  religion  and  the  glories  of  the 
Church. 

"  The  wilderness  and  the  solitary  place  shall  be 
glad  for  them,  and  the  desert  shall  rejoice  and  blos- 
som as  the  rose." 

"  The  mountains  and  the  hills  shall  break  forth 
before  you  into  singing,  and  all  the  trees  of  the  fields 
shall  clap  their  hands.  Instead  of  the  thorn  shall 
come  up  the  fir-tree,  and  instead  of  the  brier  shall 
come  up  the  myrtle-tree." 


256  Natural  Theology. 

The  power  and  beauty  of  these  same  objects 
appear  in  the  Saviour's  teachings.  The  fig  and  the 
olive,  the  sparrow  and  the  lily  of  the  field,  give 
peculiar  force  and  beauty  to  the  great  truths  they 
were  used  to  illustrate. 

The  Bible  throughout  is  remarkable  in  this  re- 
spect. It  is  a  collection  of  books  written  by  authors 
far  removed  from  each  other  in  time  and  place  and 
mental  culture,  but  throughout  the  whole,  nature  is 
exalted  as  a  revelation  of  God.  Its  beauty  and 
sublimity  are  appealed  to  to  arouse  the  emotions, 
and  through  the  emotions  to  reach  the  moral  and 
religious  nature.  This  element  of  unity  runs  through 
all  the  books  where  references  to  nature  can  be 
made.  One  of  the  adaptations  of  the  Bible  to  the 
nature  of  man  is  found  in  the  sublime  and  perfect 
representation  of  the  natural  world,  by  which  nature 
is  ever  made  to  proclaim  the  character  and  perfec- 
tions of  God.  No  language  can  be  written,  that  so 
perfectly  sets  forth  the  grand  and  terrible  in  nature 
and  its  forces,  as  we  hear  when  God  answers  Job 
out  of  the  whirlwind.  No  higher  appreciation  of 
the  beautiful,  and  of  God  as  the  author  of  beauty, 
was  ever  expressed  than  when  our  Saviour  said  of 
the  lilies  of  the  field,  "  I  say  unto  you  that  even 
Solomon,  in  all  his  glory,  was  not  arrayed  like  one 
of  these ; "  and  then  adds  ;  "  If  God  so  clothe  the 
grass  of  the  field" — ascribing  the  element  of  beauty 
in  every  leaf  and  opening  bud  to  the  Creator's  skill 
and  power. 

Thus,  in  all  the  adorning  of  common  language, 


Poetry — Painting — Sculpture.  257 

in  poetry  itself,  and  in  the  vivid  pictures  of  divine 
inspiration,  the  sweetest  note  that  strikes  the  ear 
comes  from  the  landscape ;  the  brightest  picture 
is  the  landscape  itself.  All  that  Taste  has  ever  de- 
manded for  her  gratification,  genius  has  here  found  ; 
and  if  God  is  the  author  of  both  nature  and  the 
mind,  here  we  should  expect  that  among  the  crystals, 
flowers  and  sensitive  life,  the  emotional  nature  of  man 
would  find  one  of  its  highest  earthly  gratifications. 
In  painting  and  sculpture  the  human  mind  is  striv- 
ing for  the  same  that  appears  in  poetry  and  in  the 
adorning  of  common  language.  It  is  the  gratifica- 
tion of  the  love  of  the  beautiful.  Poetry,  painting, 
and  sculpture,  have  moved  on  together  ir.  all  ages. 
They  are  the  natural  outgrowth  of  the  human  mind. 
And  the  great  masters  have  gained  their  preemi- 
nence from  their  clear  conceptions  of  nature,  and 
the  emotional  in  man,  and  their  skill  in  selecting 
from  one  what  should  meet  the  wants  of  the  other. 
The  artist  who  can  so  combine  the  hints  of  nature 
as  to  make  a  perfect  whole,  need  have  no  fear  of 
being  forgotten  or  neglected. 

As  nature  is  the  store-house  from  which  writers 
draw,  and  the  pattern  according  to  which  they  must 
work,  so  must  this  also  be  true  of  the  painter  and 
sculptor,  who  would  trace  upon  the  canvas  and 
chisel  from  marble,  figures  that  shall  glow  forever 
with  the  warm  expression  of  life. 

But  if  no  line  of  poetry  had  ever  been  written,  no 
canvas  ever  glowed  with  colors,  and  no  sculptor  had 
ever  found  the  statue  within  the  block  of  marble,  we 


258  Natural  Theology. 

could  not  fail  to  recognize  the  provision  that  has 
been  made  in  nature  for  us,  as  emotional  beings, 
and  lovers  of  the  grand  and  beautiful. 

We  have  referred  to  the  fine  arts  only  as  evidence 
that  men  have  in  all  ages  recognised  this  provision, 
and  that  in  all  their  attempts  to  appeal  to  the  emo- 
tional in  man,  they  have  sought  to  follow  nature. 
And  when  we  rise  into  the  higher  spiritual  sphere, 
we  still  are  dependent  upon  nature's  symbols,  in 
order  to  express  our  conceptions  of  these  higher 
beauties.  The  heavens  and  the  earth,  in  their 
grandeur  and  beauty,  as  pictures  of  unequalled  com- 
position, are  daily  presenting  new  occasions  for  won- 
der and  enjoyment ;  while  each  distinct  object,  that 
like  the  pencil-stroke,  completes  the  picture,  has  its 
own  power  by  its  beauty  or  grandeur,  to  call  out 
the  emotions  of  the  soul,  and  give  its  revenue  of 
pleasure. 

How  much  enjoyment  comes  to  us  through  the 
sweet  sounds  of  music  !  The  ear  was  formed  with 
power  to  mark  the  nice  distinction  of  sounds  ;  and 
bird  and  insect ;  the  brook  tinkling  over  its  pebbly 
bed  ;  the  ocean,  and  the  thunders,  in  their  deep  diapa- 
sons, give  the  elements  of  the  sweetest  and  grand- 
est melodies.  If  we  consider  music  as  an  art,  minis- 
tering to  our  enjoyment,  we  cannot  fail  to  observe 
how  many  conditions  are  necessary  in  us,  and  in  the 
physical  nature  of  the  elements,  that  this  source  of 
enjoyment  should  be  possible,  and  so  rich.  The 
sense  of  hearing  we  have  already  considered  in  a 
former  lecture ;  but  all  the  common  uses  of  this  sense 


Music.  259 

would  have  been  answered  without  the  power  of 
appreciating  music. 

The  sense  of  hearing  is  not  absolutely  essential 
to  man.  It  is  plain  he  might  exist  upon  the  globe 
without  it.  The  race  would,  indeed,  be  vastly  lower 
than  it  now  is,  for  we  are  not  to  judge  from  what 
mutes  become  under  the  teaching  of  those  who  can 
hear,  what  a  race  of  deaf  mutes  would  be,  if  left  to 
make  progress  for  themselves. 

Hearing  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  important  adap- 
tations by  which  man,  as  a  physical  being,  is  fitted 
to  this  world  ;  but  the  power  to  appreciate  music  is 
an  entirely  different  thing.  No  necessity  for  it  can 
be  pointed  out,  if  we  consider  man  merely  as  an 
animal ;  it  is  simply  and  solely  a  source  of  enjoy- 
ment. As  a  condition  of  this  enjoyment,  we  have 
the  power  of  appreciating  the  music  when  it  is  pro- 
duced ;  a  power  which  does  not  belong  to  us  neces- 
sarily, for  some  are  without  it.  We  have  also  the 
nature  of  material  objects,  by  which  sounds  are  pro- 
duced. There  is  no  necessity  in  the  case  that  air, 
when  vibrating,  should  produce  sounds,  and  that  it 
should  always  give  the  same  power  to  the  same  in- 
struments, in  all  parts  of  the  world.  There  is  no 
necessity  that  different  kinds  of  wood  and  metal,  and 
other  materials,  should  give  the  variety  of  sound  they 
do.  In  fact,  the  wonderful  powers  of  all  the  in- 
struments invented  by  men,  to  give  sweet  sounds, 
are  proofs  of  the  provision  that  has  been  made  in 
the  nature  of  things  to  gratify  that  love  of  music 
implanted  in  man,  simply  as  a  source  of  enjoyment. 


260  Natural  Theology. 

The  joy  and  the  sadness  which  music  awakens  in 
the  soul,  like  the  light  and  shade  that  flit  over  the 
landscape,  show  how  the  emotional  nature  of  man 
is  provided  for  even  in  the  vibrations  of  the  air,  by 
which  music  is  produced.  The  rich,  joyous  sounds 
of  the  human  voice,  so  sweet  to  the  ear,  the  blend- 
ing music  of  the  organ,  all  waking  the  deepest  emo- 
tions of  man,  by  the  power  of  sound  alone,  declare 
the  provision  that  has  been  made  in  the  mechanism 
of  the  ear,  and  the  waves  of  the  air,  and  in  the  pure 
intellect  that  combines  them,  for  the  delight  of  the 
emotional  nature  of  man. 

But  in  beauty  of  outline  and  of  color,  the  most 
lavish  provision  has  been  made  for  our  enjoyment. 
We  can  never  think  of  the  beauty  of  the  evening 
sky  as  being  a  matter  of  chance.  The  starry  con- 
cave seems  to  have  too  great  power  to  gratify  by 
its  beauty,  not  to  be  a  provision  for  this  purpose  ; 
and  this  we  may  acknowledge,  though  we  know  that 
each  star  is  a  sun,  and  the  centre  of  other  systems. 

The  varied  forms  and  tints  of  clouds  give  new 
scenes  of  beauty  every  day.  What  glories  light  up 
the  morning  and  evening  sky,  as  the  beams  of  the 
rising  or  setting  sun  glance  from  the  piles  and  lines 
of  vapor  that  fill  the  upper  air  !  One  who  has 
watched  the  varied  beauties  of  the  gilded  morning 
and  evening  clouds  in  every  clime,  will  acknowledge 
the  beauty  of  the  scenes,  and  the  source  of  enjoy- 
ment which  they  are  to  every  lover  of  beauty.  We 
cannot  regard  that  constitution  of  water  that  gives 
the  glories  of  the  clouds  their  gorgeous  play  of 


Crystals — Clouds.  261 

light ;  and  the  enchanting  beauties  of  the  rainbow, 
painted  in  the  falling  drops,  as  something  neces- 
sary in  the  nature  of  things.  It  is  necessary  accord- 
ing to  the  present  order  of  things,  but  such  pro- 
visions, or  such  relations,  are  strong  evidence  that 
this  order  is  the  result  of  a  plan.  We  know  not 
why  the  forms  and  colors  of  crystals  may  not  be 
part  of  the  same  provision.  What  sources  of  delight, 
as  objects  of  beauty,  are  the  crystals  into  which 
nature  forms  the  minerals  and  some  organic  produc- 
tions !  We  recognize  in  this  selecting  power  of 
crystallization,  a  provision  of  the  highest  value  to 
man  in  many  respects,  and  we  have  already  con- 
sidered its  relation  to  pure  intellect.  We  have  not 
only  the  selecting  power,  but  also  the  beauty  of 
form,  as  exhibited  in  the  primary  and  secondary 
crystals,  as  well  as  the  varied  tints  of  all  the  gems. 
The  precious  stones  are  not  beautiful  on  account  of 
association  merely,  but  are  undoubtedly  fitted,  in 
and  of  themselves,  to  gratify  our  love  of  beauty. 

When  we  come  into  the  organic  kingdom,  the 
provision  is  still  more  striking.  The  clouds  and 
the  crystals  may  be  lightly  thought  of,  because  they 
are  simply  exhibitions  of  the  properties  of  matter 
and  of  light.  But  organic  beings  are  on  entirely 
different  ground.  They  once  had  no  existence  upon 
the  globe.  Their  beauty  certainly  is  nothing  fixed 
or  necessary.  In  many  cases,  no  possible  use  can  be 
ascribed  to  certain  forms,  and  the  display  of  colors, 
except  to  gratify  the  love  of  the  beautiful  in  man.  It 
matters  not  whether  we  refer  to  the  animal  or  vege- 


262  Natural  Theology. 

table  kingdom,  for  the  same  design  is  apparent  in  both. 
In  the  vegetable  kingdom  alone,  there  is  a  wealth  of 
illustration.  There  is  beauty  everywhere,  and  pro- 
duced in  such  ways,  that  it  is  often  apparent  that 
it  was  the  sole  object  in  creation,  while  utility  and 
beauty  are  in  other  cases  conjoined.  The  beauti- 
fully cut  edge  of  the  leaf  favors  radiation,  and  is  thus 
subservient  to  the  welfare  of  the  plant ;  but  when 
we  consider  the  varied  outline  of  all  the  leaves,  their 
increase  in  beauty,  by  cultivation,  and  their  combi- 
nation in  the  compound  forms,  we  are  delighted 
both  by  the  great  variety,  and  the  intrinsic  beauty 
of  distinct  forms,  neither  of  which  certainly  is  neces- 
sary. The  same  is  true  of  the  flower.  We  know 
what  is  essential  to  a  perfect  flower,  that  seed  may 
be  produced.  But  what  human  ingenuity  could 
have  ever  devised  the  numberless  patterns  of  the 
flowers  ?  How  is  the  mind  charmed  in  some  of  the 
great  collections,  as  at  Kew,  where  royal  wealth  has 
collected  plants  from  all  portions  of  the  world,  and 
where,  among  the  thousands  of  species,  or  among 
varieties  that  have  been  produced,  not  one  can  be 
found  that  has  not  in  it  some  element  of  beauty  ? 
If  we  confine  ourselves  to  the  consideration  of  form 
alone,  there  is  much  to  delight  us,  among  even  our 
common  flowers.  But  when  we  add  to  form,  the 
matchless  coloring,  how  can  man  believe  that  such 
a  provision  for  his  enjoyment  was  made  by  any 
other  than  by  a  Being  like  himself ;  or  at  least,  one 
that  understood  his  constitution,  and  desired  to  gra- 
tify his  emotional  nature  ? 


Plants.  263 

Look  at  the  opening  lily,  as  it  floats  upon  the 
waters,  and  see  the  beautiful  contrast  of  alabaster 
and  gold !  or  at  the  nicely  balanced  colorings  of  a 
multitude  of  our  flowers,  where  the  tints  are  ranged 
in  dots,  or  rings,  with  such  precision  as  to  delight 
us,  not  only  by  the  rich  coloring,  but  by  the  artistic 
relation  of  the  colors  to  each  other,  and  to  the  form 
of  the  flower.  Who  can  believe  that  such  beauty 
of  form  and  color  serves  merely  to  attract  insects  ? 

It  is  among  plants,  also,  that  we  find  that  special 
provision  for  the  increase  of  beauty,  as  they  are 
cultivated,  and  man  becomes  capable  of  appreciating 
beauty  for  its  own  sake.  We  refer  to  the  doubling 
of  flowers,  like  roses,  and  dahlias,  and  many  others, 
that  increase  in  beauty  by  this  process,  until  they 
lose  all  power  of  producing  seed,  for  which  the 
flower  seems  primarily  to  be  made.  But  no  plant 
ever  loses  the  power  of  producing  seed,  unless  other 
provision  has  been  made  for  its  propagation  ;  and 
when  an  annual  thus  changes,  so  that  it  can  no 
longer  produce  seed,  it  becomes  perennial.  The 
whole  economy  of  the  plant  in  such  cases  seems  to 
be  arranged  with  regard  to  beauty,  but  with  wise 
forethought  for  the  preservation  of  the  species. 
How  nicely  balanced  the  forces  in  the  plant  must 
be,  that  while  it  can  produce  seed,  its  course  is  run 
in  a  single  year,  but  when  the  seed-producing  power 
is  lost  by  the  unrolling  of  its  organs  into  beautiful 
petals,  there  is  power  enough  saved  by  the  process 
to  carry  the  plant  over,  and  make  its  life  continuous, 
that  it  may  be  propagated  from  the  root. 


264  Natural  Theology. 

Another  remarkable  .evidence  that  this  chang- 
ing of  flowers  to  increase  their  beauty  was  pro- 
vided for  in  their  creation,  is  found  in  the  fact  that 
those  flowers,  in  which  the  stamens  are  large  and 
ornamented,  so  as  to  make  a  distinct  element 
in  the  beauty  of  the  flower,  seldom,  if  ever,  become 
double. 

In  the  animal  kingdom  we  have  everywhere  ap- 
parent the  same  regard  for  beauty  of  outline  and 
harmony  of  color.  If  there  are  monsters,  it  may  be 
partly  from  association  of  their  form  with  their  na- 
tures, or  because  they  occupy  such  a  place  in  creation 
that  there  can  be  no  beauty  but  that  of  adaptation. 
But  when  we  have  thrown  aside  all  these  cases  in 
respect  to  which  there  might  be  difference  of  opin- 
ion, the  great  mass  of  animal  life  speaks  of  the  same 
Divine  Artist  whose  matchless  skill  has  arranged  the 
lilies  of  the  field. 

In  the  field  of  the  microscope  there  is  often  a 
display  of  beauty  that  is  wonderful.  Animal  and 
vegetable  forms  too  small  for  the  naked  eye  to  dis- 
cern, or  if  discerned  at  all,  seeming  like  grains  of 
dust,  under  the  power  of  the  magnifying  lens,  be- 
come perfect  marvels  in  beauty  of  outline  and 
sculpture.  We  have  also  the  same  exhibition  of 
beauty  and  perfection  of  structure  in  the  minute 
organs  of  larger  forms  of  animal  life.  In  some  of 
our  liberally  endowed  scientific  societies  we  have  a 
section  of  the  society  given  to  microscopic  research. 
They  gather  the  mud  from  pools  in  all  parts  of  the 
earth,  the  dust  that  collects  upon  the  sails  in  long 


The  Microscope.  265 

voyages  upon  the  ocean,  the  ooze  brought  up  by  the 
sounding  lead  from  the  deep  bed  of  the  ocean  ;  they 
seek  in  every  hidden  place  for  the  minute  in  the 
animal  and  vegetable  kingdom. 

But  in  all  their  search,  did  they  ever  find  one 
mark  of  imperfection?  As  they  ply  still  greater 
and  greater  power  with  their  improved  instruments 
is  not  the  charm  which  so  holds  them  to  their  work* 
the  new  beauties  which  every  new  specimen  reveals 
to  them  ?  In  one  there  is  beauty  of  structure  ;  in 
another,  of  outline  and  sculpture ;  in  another  of 
color ;  and  in  another  of  adaptation  ;  so  that  the  mi- 
croscopist  dwells  in  a  world  of  enchantment,  a  world 
unknown  to  common  men,  a  world  of  wonders  by 
itself,  but  a  world  as  perfect  in  all  its  parts  and  as 
plainly  proclaiming  divine  wisdom  and  skill  as  the 
suns  and  planets  that  circle  in  space.  Among  all 
these  patient  observers  we  have  yet  to  find  the  first 
one  who  claims  that  his  microscope  has  revealed 
anything  but  perfection.  To  every  object  of  beauty 
he  applies  the  glass  with  one  expectation — that 
greater  beauties  will  be  revealed  by  its  magnifying 
power.  In  all  the  works  of  man,  it  brings  out  im- 
perfections ;  in  all  the  works  of  nature  increased 
beauty,  without  a  single  exception  in  the  whole  his- 
tory of  microscopic  investigation. 

If  we  advance  one  step  further,  we  find  the  radiate 
division  of  the  animal  kingdom,  the  corals,  jelly-fishes, 
and  star-fish  tribe.  The  coral  animals,  by  their 
beautiful  forms  and  brilliant  colors,  form  gardens  in 
the  ocean,  so  beautiful  that  it  is  not  strange  that 


266  Natural  Theology. 

poetic  fancy  should  locate  in  the  coral-groves  the 
dwelling-place  of  sea-nymphs,  beings  too  beautiful 
for  the  upper  air. 

And  when  the  gay  color  of  the  living  coral  is 
gone,  and  nothing  but  the  solid  stone-work  remains, 
what  graceful  outlines  and  delicate  sculpture  the 
varied  forms  present !  What  human  genius  could 
devise  the  multitude  of  patterns  which  abound  in  a 
rich  collection  of  these  treasures  of  the  ocean  ?  The 
branching  Madrepore,  the  domes  of  Astreas  and 
Meandrinas,  have  each  their  own  element  of  beauty, 
so  that  we  feel  at  once  that  the  idea  aimed  at  has 
been  reached.  We  may  consider  one  form  more  beau- 
tiful than  another,  but  not  a  single  specimen  can  we 
select  which  we  could  improve  in  its  style  of  beauty 
without  changing  its  plan  of  structure,  and  making 
it  another  species. 

We  discover  here  a  grand  principle,  further  illus- 
trated in  the  shells  of  the  ocean,  of  which  we  shall 
by  and  by  speak.  While  there  is  beauty  in  the  living 
animals,  the  solid  coral  and  the  shells  are  to  remain 
the  permanent  objects.  The  beauty  of  the  animal 
cannot  be  preserved,  as  it  can  be  in  some  of  the 
higher  forms  of  life.  All  .beauty  is  gone  in  these 
lowest  animals  when  life  is  gone.  But  the  solid  coral 
and  the  shells  are  so  indestructible,  that  even  the 
coral,  which  is  hidden  from  sight,  while  the  animal 
lives,  is  ornamented  as  though  it  were  intended  that 
the  solid  framework  should  be  the  permanent  record 
and  constant  witness  of  the  provision  made  in  nature 
for  the  love  of  the  beautiful  in  man. 


Radiate  Animals.  267 

Among  the  jelly-fishes,  which  are  among  the  most 
evanescent  of  all  beings,  there  bursts  upon  us  an- 
other group  of  beautiful  forms  and  colors.  Nothing 
can  surpass  the  beauty  of  a  Greenland  harbor,  on 
some  clear  summer-day,  when  the  varied  species  of 
jelly-fish  are  filling  its  waters.  Their  perfect  forms 
and  delicate  tints  make  them  beautiful  as  gems, 
though  so  soon  to  perish.  While  in  the  slow-grow- 
ing coral  we  have  its  strong  framework  left  to  delight 
us,  the  jelly-fishes,  like  the  annual  flowers  that  beau- 
tify the  earth  every  season,  fill  the  waters  with  ever- 
recurring  riches,  for  the  lover  of  perfect  forms  and 
brilliant  tints. 

It  would  take  us  too  long  to  mention  every  branch 
and  division  of  the  animal  kingdom.  Nor  is  there 
need  of  doing  so.  But  in  this  lowest  tribe,  the 
radiates,  the  element  of  beauty  so  completely  runs 
through  it ;  beauty  of  outline  and  sculpture,  and 
richness  and  perfection  of  coloring,  both  without 
any  possible  reference  to  the  animals  themselves, 
that  we  are  forced  to  accept  it  as  a  provision  for  the 
love  of  the  beautiful  implanted  in  man.  It  gratifies 
this  element  of  our  emotional  nature.  It  is  such  a 
provision  for  our  gratification  and  enjoyment  that  we 
accept  it  as  the  handiwork  of  a  Being  who  compre- 
hended our  nature,  and  had  the  desire  and  the  power 
to  gratify  it.  While  He  cared  for  the  creatures  them- 
selves in  adapting  them  to  their  place  in  the  uni- 
verse, He  made  them  to  subserve  the  higher  forms 
of  life,  and  finally  to  minister  to  the  highest  possible 
type,  made  in  His  own  image.     And  it  is  not  irre- 


268  Natural  Theology. 

verent  to  suppose  that  the  Creator  delights  in  the 
physical  beauty  of  His  own  work. 

But  this  provision  will  be  better  understood  and 
appreciated  in  considering  the  next  division  of  ani- 
mal life — the  shells.  What  fancy  can  conceive  of 
greater  beauty,  of  its  kind,  than  is  seen  in  a  cabinet 
of  shells  ?  The  exquisite  forms  and  ornaments,  and 
the  profusion  of  richest  colors,  are  arranged  for  the 
most  perfect  artistic  effect.  Each  shell  among  the 
thousands  has  beauties  that  no  human  fancy  would 
ever  have  suggested,  had  not  nature  first  furnished 
the  pattern.  The  pearly  nautilus  and  the  brilliant 
cowrie,  in  almost  endless  variation,  are  there — the 
mother-of-pearl  and  the  silvery  pearl  itself.  Not 
one  of  these  beauties  is  for  the  animal  itself.  The 
brilliant  colors  invite  its  enemies  and  thus  favor  its 
destruction.  Can  we  see  in  them  any  other  design 
than  a  provision  for  the  delight  of  intelligent 
beings  ?  Is  it  possible  that  we  can  fail  to  see  in 
them  design  at  all  ? 

Among  the  insects  we  have  equal  exhibitions  of 
the  same  rich  artistic  skill.  Their  structure  and 
instincts  were  necessary  for  their  existence,  and 
therefore  it  might  be  argued  that  we  find  the  perfect 
combination,  because  those  species  alone  have  sur- 
vived for  which  ample  provision  was  made.  But 
no  such  reason  can  be  given  for  the  admirable 
balancing  of  colors,  and  the  elaborate  patterns  em- 
broidered on  the  wings  of  the  species  that  flit  from 
flower  to  flower  on  a  summer's  day.  The  wing 
itself  is  often  a  marvel  of  beauty  in  its  outline,  and 


Beauty  of  Insects.  269 

then  the  combinations  of  .colors  are  more  varied 
and  beautiful  than  can  be  found  in  any  work  of 
human  art ;  the  colors  themselves  are  absolutely  un- 
approachable. The  colors  alone  would  not  strike  us 
as  so  remarkable,  were  it  not  for  their  distribution 
to  produce  ornamentation.  We  are  sure  here  that 
we  have  the  work  of  nature  pure  and  simple,  and 
we  are  beyond  the  influence  of  that  potent  principle, 
natural  selection,  because  it  is  a  question  of  mere 
distribution  of  color.  And  when  the  principle  is 
pointed  out,  we  need  but  visit  a  collection  of  insects, 
or  recall  the  fairy  forms  that  have  reappeared  every 
year  upon  the  flowers,  to  understand  its  force.  We 
can  recall  the  golden  yellow  wing,  with  a  line  of 
ebon  following  the  wavy  outline  of  the  edge — the 
gorgeous  blue  and  red  of  other  species,  with  silky 
sheen,  in  rings  and  spots  and  lines, — and  "  beetles 
panoplied  in  gems  and  gold." 

We  need  not  multiply  examples  ;  for  the  same 
exhibitions  of  beauty  meet  us  from  the  lowest  to 
the  highest  ranks  of  the  animal  kingdom.  The 
same  idea  is  secured  by  means  so  different  that  it 
speaks  of  a  great  provision  for  the  enjoyment  of 
rational  creatures.  In  the  coral  polyp  and  jelly-fish 
the  color  is  generally  in  the  animal  itself.  In  the 
shell-fish  tribe  it  is  made  permanent  in  the  shell, 
which  is  solid  as  the  stone  split  from  the  quarry ; 
in  the  insect  tribe,  it  burnishes  the  wings  of  beetles 
and  tints  the  delicate  scales  upon  the  wings  of  the 
lepidoptera.  In  the  vertebrates,  it  appears  in  the 
scales  of  fishes  and  reptiles  ;  in  the  goodly  feathers 


270  Natural  Theology. 

of  the  peacocK  and  the.  ruby  and  emerald  tints  of 
the  humming-birds,  and  thousands  of  other  forms 
that  swarm  in  the  tropics.  Take  the  fishes  of  the 
rivers  or  of  the  ocean,  the  birds  and  animals  of 
higher  type,  as  they  come  from  the  hand  of  nature, 
and  wonder  at  the  artistic  display  of  color.  It  can- 
not possibly,  once  in  a  hundred  cases,  have  any 
reference  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  animal.  In  some 
cases  similarity  of  color  to  natural  objects  may  pro- 
tect the  animal  from  its  foes  ;  but  in  the  vast  majo- 
rity of  cases  color  must  be  regarded  as  a  gratuitous 
provision  having  no  reference  to  the  animal  itself. 
Yet  no  one  who  studies  it  can  fail  to  recognize  de- 
sign ;  and  the  only  possible  design  in  the  harmony 
and  balancing  of  colors,  must  be  the  delight  of  intel- 
ligent beings. 

But  just  at  this  point  I  am  reminded  that  this 
beauty  did  not  begin  when  man  appeared  upon  the 
earth  to  admire  it.  There  is  the  same  artistic  skill, 
not  only  in  adapting  means  to  ends,  but  in  the 
ornamentation  also,  among  the  geologic  plants  and 
animals,  as  appears  now.  We  have  no  doubt  there 
is  a  vastly  greater  wealth  of  animal  and  plant-beauty 
upon  the  earth  now  than  in  any  previous  geologic 
period.  We  are  not  sure  of  this  indeed,  but  only 
infer  it  from  the  kinds  that  live  now  compared  with 
those  that  lived  then.  But  whatever  tribes  ap- 
peared had  their  beauty,  and  its  traces  are  left  in 
the  rocks.  We  find  this  beauty  of  ornamentation 
even  among  the  trilobites  of  the  silurian  rocks. 
And  in  any  geological  cabinet  can  be  found  speci- 


Beauty  of  Fossils.  271 

mens  that  were  in  their  time  not  only  beautiful  in 
sculpture,  but  in  color.  In  addition  to  the  elaborate 
finish  of  the  Ammonites,  we  have  seen  some  in 
which  the  beauty  of  the  shell  remained  as  perfect 
as  in  the  pearly  nautilus  just  taken  from  the  sea. 

Among  the  plants  there  probably  was  little  beauty 
of  flower,  but  the  leaf  and  every  part  needed  for 
those  early  tribes  of  plants,  was  as  artistically 
finished  as  the  plants  that  most  delight  us  by  their 
beauty  of  outline. 

Buckland  gives  a  graphic  account  of  the  rich  pro- 
fusion of  beauty  in  the  petrified  plants  of  the  Bohe- 
mian coal-mines. 

"  The  most  elaborate  imitations  of  living  foliage 
upon  the  painted  ceilings  of  Italian  palaces,  bear  no 
comparison  with  the  beauteous  profusion  of  extinct 
vegetable  forms,  with  which  the  galleries  of  these 
instructive  coal-mines  are  overhung.  The  roof  is 
covered  with  a  canopy  of  gorgeous  tapestry  en- 
riched with  festoons  of  most  graceful  foliage,  flung  in 
wild,  irregular  profusion  over  every  portion  of  its 
surface.  The  effect  is  heightened  by  the  contrast 
of  the  coal-black  color  of  the  plants  with  the  light 
groundwork  of  the  rock  to  which  they  are  attached. 
The  spectator  feels  himself  transported,  as  if  by 
enchantment,  into  the  forests  of  another  world  ;  he 
beholds  trees  of  form  and  character  now  unknown 
upon  the  surface  of  the  earth,  presented  to  his 
senses  almost  in  the  beauty  and  vigor  of  their  pri- 
meval life  ;  their  scaly  stems  and  bending  branches, 
with  their  delicate  apparatus  of  foliage,  are  all  spread 


272  Natural  Theology. 

forth  before  him,  little  impaired  by  the  lapse  of 
countless  ages,  and  bearing  faithful  records  of  ex- 
tinct systems  of  vegetation  which  began  and  termi 
nated  in  times  of  which  these  relics  are  the  infallible 
historians." 

What  use  of  all  this  beauty  when,  as  yet,  there 
was  no  intelligent  being  upon  the  earth  ?  He  that 
formed  the  eye,  shall  not  He  see?  and  He  that  im- 
planted in  man  the  love  of  the  beautiful,  shall  He 
not  take  delight  in  His  own  works  ?  For  His  pleas- 
ure they  are  and  were  created.  But  considering 
man  alone,  we  have  a  satisfactory  answer.  We  have 
before  shown  that  in  making  provision  for  man's  phy- 
sical nature  on  the  earth,  his  intellectual  nature  was 
necessarily  considered.  The  highest  development 
of  man  demands  that  he  should  study  the  earth's 
crust.  The  coal  and  the  metals  are  hidden  there, 
and  he  must  find  them.  The  remains  of  ancient  life 
are  his  land-marks.  The  crust  of  the  earth  is  man's 
possession,  and  there  is  the  same  reason  why  he 
should  find  objects  of  beauty  there,  as  that  they 
should  be  found  among  living  forms.  It  is  pleasant 
to  contemplate,  these  provisions  made  for  man  in 
the  early  earth — provisions  prophetic  of  his  exalted 
nature,  and  of  his  progress  in  knowledge. 

In  the  slight  sketch  we  have  been  able  to  make, 
it  must  'be  apparent  that  ample  provision  has  been 
made,  in  every  department  of  nature,  to  gratify  the 
love  of  the  beautiful.  The  faculty  of  appreciating 
has  been  given,  and  then  special  provision  has  been 
made,  in  varied  form  and  color,  to  meet  the  demands 


Grandeur — Sublimity.  273 

of  this  faculty,  where  no  other  reason  can  be  given 
for  their  existence.  But  when  we  come  to  consider 
grandeur  and  sublimity,  the  case  seems  somewhat 
different.  We  can  hardly  feel  that  the  mountains 
rear  their  heads  that  we  may  wonder  at  their  majes- 
ty ;  that  the  thunder-clouds  marshal  their  forces, 
and  the  ocean  puts  on  the  terrors  of  the  storm,  that 
we  may  witness  the  grand  and  sublime.  We  feel 
that  these  all  are  exhibitions  of  the  great  forces  of 
nature,  and  that  they  all  have  a  purpose,  irrespective 
of  man.  But  we  cannot  fail  to  recognize  the  design 
of  a  wise  Creator,  in  implanting  in  us  the  faculty  of 
comprehending  these  mighty  works,  so  as  to  be  filled 
with  awe  and  wonder  before  them.  If  anything  in 
nature  brings  us  near  to  God,  it  is  the  grand  and 
terrible.  We  worship  neither  the  mountain,  nor  the 
ocean,  nor  the  thunder  ;  but  in  their  presence  the 
boldest  atheist  sometimes  forgets  his  doubts,  and 
stands  humbly  ready  to  adore, 

Not  only  is  there  this  ample  provision  made  for 
the  emotional  nature,  but  the  history  of  the  race 
shows  that  this  higher  nature  of  man,  so  nearly 
allied  to  the  moral  and  religious,  was  as  perfect  ages 
ago  as  now.  While  science,  which  depends  upon 
long-continued  and  accumulated  observations,  could 
come  to  perfection  only  in  later  times,  so  as  to  give 
us  any  adequate  conception  of  what  the  pure  intel- 
lect is  capable,  this  higher  emotional  nature  showed 
its  divine  origin  in  the  earliest  historic  times.  If 
we  want  the  highest  type  of  poetry,  we  turn  to  Ho- 
mer and  the  Hebrew  bards  ;  if  the  beautiful  in  form; 
12* 


274  Natttral  Theology. 

to  the  cunning  work  of  the  old  masters.  These 
flashes  of  the  highest  powers  of  man,  shining  out  of 
the  darkness  of  unstable  civilizations,  and  in  the 
infancy  of  physical  science,  show  the  fallacy  of  all 
development  theories,  when  applied  to  the  mind  of 
man.  As  far  back  as  we  can  go,  in  poetry,  and 
sculpture,  and  architecture,  and  philosophy,  we  have 
evidence  of  as  high  type  of  mental  power  as  can  now 
be  found  in  the  world.  They  lacked  the  method  in 
science,  and  the  means  of  progress,  which  are  the 
aggregate  accumulation  of  centuries,  but  they  lacked 
no  element  nor  degree  of  power  which  we  possess. 
The  fact  that  men  worshipped  the  grand  and  terri- 
ble in  nature — the  mountain,  the  sun,  the  fire,  and 
the  thunder — showed  want  of  knowledge,  indeed  ; 
but  it  showed  the  power  of  the  emotional  nature, 
and  the  potency  of  natural  objects  and  physical 
forces  to  call  it  into  action,  and  thus  to  arouse 
the  moral  and  religious  impulses. 

The  last  adaptation  between  nature  and  the  mind 
that  we  shall  notice,  is  the  provision  which  has  been 
made  for  the  different  intellectual  tastes  of  men. 
There  is  similarity  of  mind  enough  to  be  a  basis 
for  mental  philosophy  ;  but  it  is  apparent  that  even 
in  the  same  families  are  found  children  having  a 
fitness  for  different  intellectual  pursuits.  Without 
this  variety  of  taste  and  power,  advance  in  science 
and  art  would  be  slow,  and  vastly  contracted  in  its 
range.  How  small  a  portion  of  science,  of  the  fine 
or  useful  arts,  can  be  mastered  by  one  man  !     The 


Variety  of  Tastes.  275 

most  gifted  and  most  accomplished  man  in  the 
world,  has  only  to  walk  through  the  streets  of  any 
city  for  a  single  day,  to  see  how  small  a  portion  of 
the  knowledge  possessed  by  all  men  he  possesses, 
and  how  small  a  portion  of  the  works  of  art  he 
would  be  able  to  equal.  Civilization,  as  we  find  it 
to-day,  is  represented  in  no  one  man  ;  it  is  the 
aggregate  science  and  art  of  thousands  working  in 
different  directions.  Some  men  may  be  turned  in 
one  direction  rather  than  another,  by  chance  ;  but 
progress,  nay,  the  very  existence  of  different  depart- 
ments of  science  and  art  depends,  upon  the  variety 
in  the  constitution  of  the  human  mind.  There  is 
not  only  laid  in  nature  the  foundation  of  science  in 
the  very  constitution  of  matter  and  in  all  its  collo- 
cations in  organic  beings,  but  provision  has  been 
made  in  this  variety  of  the  mind,  that  all  these 
sciences  should  take  their  place  in  due  time  as 
means  of  human  enjoyment.  These  scientific  pos- 
sibilities remain  unknown  for  thousands  of  years, 
like  the  coal  and  oil  and  other  provisions  for  man's 
physical  wants,  till  progress  demands  them,  and 
then  they  are  reached.  Who  can  tell  what  sciences 
are  yet  enfolded  within  unexplored  chambers  of  the 
physical  world,  where  this  busy  mind  dividing  its 
work  and  increasing  its  power  a  thousand-fold  by 
its  different,  distinct  lines  of  action,  shall  yet  pene- 
trate ?  And  when  all  these  explorers  return  from 
the  deep,  dark  galleries  of  research,  the  treasures 
which  they  bring  forth  become  the  property  of 
the  world,  and  the  whole  race,  as  it  were,  steps  upon 


276  Natural  Theology. 

a  higher  plane.  There  is  not  only  provision  made 
for  unlimited  improvement,  both  in  the  constitution 
of  nature  and  the  constitution  of  the  human  mind 
as  a  whole,  but  provision  is  made  for  rapid  advance, 
and  for  the  special  employment  and  happiness  of 
the  race,  in  the  variety  of  taste  and  power  which 
calls  them  to  such  different  spheres  of  activity. 


LECTURE  XI. 

THE  MORAL  NATURE  OF  MAN,  AND  THE  BIBLE  AS  A 
NATURAL  PROVISION  FOR  HIM. 

Decisions  of  the  moral  nature. — Chief  characteristic  of  man. 
— Conscience. — Implies  accountability . — The  existence  of  a 
moral  governor. — Approval  of  conscience. — Public  opinion. 
— Others  suffer  from  our  acts. — Malevoletit  feelings  pro- 
duce lmhappiness. — Appetites. — Physical  suffering  from 
sin. — Labor  tends  to  virttte. —  The  world  as  it  is,  best  for  us. 
— This  world  not  enough  for  man's  powers. — His  immor- 
tality inferred. — Questions  which  we  need  to  have  answered. 
— The  Bible  a  natural  provisioji. — Adapted  to  meet  the 
wants  of  man's  7noral  nature. — Answers  questions  which 
nature  catmot  answer. — Forgiveness  of  sin. — Immortality 
brought  to  light. —  With  the  Bible,  man  completely  pro- 
vided for. 

We  have  thus  far  traced  the  handiwork  of  a  wise 
Designer  through  the  three  kingdoms  of  nature. 
Whatever  field  we  entered,  there  we  found  evidence 
of  wisdom,  skill  and  power.  The  ends  are  wisely 
chosen,  the  means  are  skilfully  adapted  to  secure 
each  end,  and  the  plans  are  on  a  scale  of  vast  mag- 
nitude. When  we  consider  our  intellectual  powers, 
we  are  not  only  conscious  of  our  ability  to  compre- 
hend these  wonderful  plans  ;  but  we  find  all  the 
arrangements  of  matter,  having  reference  to  the 
mind  of  man,  fitted  to  give  constant  exercise  and  un- 
limited improvement  to  his  highest  mental  powers^ 


278  Natural  Theology. 

We  find  the  world  also  corresponding  to  the  emo- 
tional nature,  giving  objects  of  beauty,  grandeur, 
and  sublimity.  We  find  it  as  completely  fitted  to 
the  whole  intellectual  nature  of  man  as  it  is  to  his 
physical  nature. 

But  it  is  not  enough  for  man  that  he  is  able  to 
provide  for  himself  food  and  raiment  and  shelter,  or 
that  he  can  revel  in  the  enjoyment  of  intellectual 
and  emotional  exercises  ;  for  above  all  these  he  has 
a  moral  nature.  He  has  a  sense  of  right  and  wrong, 
and  the  conscious  power  of  choosing  one  course  of 
action  in  preference  to  another  for  himself.  He 
says  of  the  acts  of  his  neighbor  that  they  are  right 
or  wrong,  that  he  is  a  good  or  a  bad  man.  He  has 
also  feelings  of  merit  or  demerit  in  reference  to  his 
own  character,  thoughts,  and  actions. 

We  are  linked  to  our  fellow-men  by  ties  of  in- 
terest or  affection,  and  we  have  a  social  nature  ;  but 
it  is  in  the  moral  nature  that  we  find  the  only  real 
distinction  in  kind  between  man  and  the  lower 
animals.  His  intellect,  emotions,  and  social  nature 
are  simply  conditional  for  this  higher  moral  nature  ; 
and  they  in  turn  are  so  modified  by  it  that  the 
social  nature  at  least  is  what  it  is,  because  man  is 
a  moral  being. 

Let  us  turn  now  to  this  higher  nature.  And  as 
its  central  power  and  guide,  so  far  as  man  can  be 
a  guide  to  himself,  we  recognize  conscience,  the 
arbiter  of  right  and  wrong.  We  leave  to  the  moral- 
ist the  analysis  and  mutual  relations  of  this  and 
other  moral  and  intellectual  powers,  and  deal  with 


Conscience.  279 

their  acknowledged  action  and  results.  Whenever 
our  relations  to  other  beings  are  understood  by  us, 
conscience  demands  that  we  act  according  to  those 
relations.  It  is  a  moral  instinct  to  secure  uniform 
results  in  moral  relations,  as  natural  instinct  works 
among  the  lower  orders  of  sentient  beings.  We 
may  mistake  in  our  judgment  right  from  wrong,  and 
as  free  moral  agents  we  have  power  to  do  violence 
to  our  conscience  ;  but  conscience  never  fails  to 
demand  what  the  judgment  pronounces  to  be  right. 
We  thus  infer  that  we  were  made  to  do  right,  be- 
cause all  in  us  that  tends  to  wrong-doing  is  antago- 
nistic to  conscience,  and  we  have  the  power  to  obey 
conscience.  If,  then,  we  have  implanted  within  us 
a  principle  that  ever  demands  the  right,  and  con- 
demns the  wrong  act,  and  we  have  given  to  us  the 
power  to  obey  that  monitor,  we  have  the  highest 
proof  that  we  were  created  by  a  moral  Being,  by  one 
who  preferred  right  to  wrong,  and  preferred  it  to 
such  a  degree  that  He  gave  us  in  our  constitution  the 
strongest  tendency  possible  towards  the  right  that 
could  be  given  without  taking  away  our  free  agency 
or  accountability.  But  because  we  have  in  us  this 
conscience,  and  at  the  same  time  the  ability  to 
choose  in  reference  to  ends  and  with  a  knowledge 
of  results,  we  have  strong  grounds  for  inferring  that 
we  are  accountable  beings.  We  infer  so,  because 
accountability  seems  needed  to  complete  our  rela- 
tions to  moral  acts.  If  there  were  no  accountability 
or  retribution,  the  forebodings  of  conscience  would 
be  to  man  what  instinct  would  be  to  the  animal  if 


280  Natural  Theology. 

there  were  nothing  in  nature  to  meet  the  demands 
of  instinct. 

Conscience  is  the  moral  monitor  and  ruler  of  man, 
and  there  is  no  peace  for  him  but  in  following  its 
commands.  It  not  only  brings  punishment  for 
wrong-doing  by  its  own  action,  but  it  does  this 
chiefly  by  a  foreboding  of  other  punishment  to 
come.  The  idea  of  futurity  seems  ever  linked  with 
it.  It  is  common  to  man  in  all  places  and  in  all 
ages.  By  no  other  characteristic  is  the  race  so 
completely  one.  It  is  the  voice  within  all  men  that 
not  only  demands  the  right  and  forbids  the  wrong, 
but  suggests  relations  to  some  Being  from  whom  we 
cannot  escape,  that  can  give  rewards  and  inflict 
punishment.  It  becomes,  therefore,  the  corner- 
stone on  which  rests  our  belief  in  God  as  our  moral 
Governor,  and  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  As 
we  infer  the  being  of  God  from  design,  and  then 
judge  of  His  natural  attributes  by  the  variety  and 
nature  of  His  works  ;  as  we  recognize  His  power  to 
provide,  in  the  constitution  of  matter  and  in  its  col- 
location, for  the  satisfaction  of  our  intellectual  and 
emotional  nature  ;  as  we  see  that  He  has  made  us 
with  powers  and  faculties  capable  of  improvement, 
and  has  laid  in  the  constitution  of  things  a  foundation 
for  that  unlimited  improvement  by  giving  us  power 
over  nature,  the  faculty  of  speech  and  the  ability 
to  transmit  knowledge  from  one  generation  to 
another — as  in  all  this  we  recognize  a  God  having 
like  attributes  with  ourselves,  but  infinite  in  degree, 
so  in  the  nature  of  conscience  implanted  in  man,  we 


Moral  Nature.  281 

find  proof  that  He  regards  right  and  wrong.  We 
cannot  help  referring  to  our  Creator  as  high  attri- 
butes as  He  has  conferred  upon  us.  Not  to  do  so, 
would  be  to  ignore  the  accepted  axiom  in  moral 
reasoning,  that  the  cause  must  "be  equal  to  the  ef- 
fect. If  He  merely  provided  for  us  as  intellectual 
and  moral  beings,  He  must  be  of  the  same  nature 
to  comprehend  our  wants,  and  when  we  accept  the 
truth  that  we  were  created  by  Him,  the  argument 
certainly  is  not  weakened.  From  our  own  consti- 
tution we  can  find  no  fitter  language  in  regard  to 
His  character  than  the  words  of  Holy  Writ :  "  He 
that  planted  the  ear,  shall  not  he  hear,  he  that 
formed  the  eye,  shall  not  he  see,  *  *  *  he  that 
teacheth  man  knowledge,  shall  not  he  know?" 

Every  man  has  within  him  constant  evidence  of 
the  existence  of  a  moral  nature.  It  simply  remains 
to  consider  the  power  of  this  nature  in  the  indivi- 
dual, and  its  relations  to  others.  And  it  is  first  to 
be  observed  that  the  approval  of  conscience  is  the 
highest  source  of  enjoyment  to  man,  and  the  up- 
braidings  of  conscience  are  the  severest  torment. 
Sustained  by  an  approving  conscience,  men  have  en- 
dured every  suffering  and  submitted  to  death  itself. 
Under  the  upbraidings  of  conscience,  men  have  be- 
come filled  with  remorse  for  the  past  and  forebod- 
ings of  the  future,  till  life  became  a  burden,  and  es- 
cape from  torment  has  been  sought  for  in  death 
itself.  The  very  moral  constitution  of  man,  then,  is 
such  that  happiness  comes  to  him  from  doing  right, 
and  suffering  from  doing  wrong.    What  doubt,  then, 


282  Natural  Theology. 

of  the  character  of  Him  who  gave  that  moi  al  con- 
stitution ? 

It  is  not  only  true  that  we  have  this  faculty  which 
impels  us  to  the  right  for  its  own  sake,  without  any 
reference  to  the  acts  or  the  judgment  of  others,  but 
we  are  in  addition  to  this  affected  by  the  opinion  of 
others.  We  know  that  they  have  the  same  moral 
constitution  that  we  have,  by  which  they  decide  moral 
questions,  and  we  know  that  the  estimation  in  which 
we  are  held  by  men  depends  upon  their  opinion  of 
our  moral  character.  We  desire  to  stand  well  with 
them.  There  is  great  support  in  their  approval  of 
any  course  of  action,  especially  if  conscience  justi- 
fies the  course.  And  there  is  a  sense  of  shame  and 
baseness,  when  we  receive  the  censure  of  others 
and  are  conscious  that  their  condemnation  is  just. 
Thus  it  is  that  public  opinion  has  such  great  power ; 
a  power  that  few  men  can  long  withstand  unless 
sustained  by  an  approving  conscience.  The  fact 
that  this  opinion  may  be  misled  by  prejudice,  and  in 
some  cases  be  absolutely  wrong,  does  not  alter  the 
argument.  Men  demand  what  they  think  is  right 
as  a  general  thing,  and  if  they  demand  what  they 
know  to  be  wrong,  they  may  hate  and  even  destroy 
the  one  who  will  not  yield,  but  they  never  can 
despise  him  ;  and  when  the  frenzy  of  passion  has 
passed  away,  they  honor  him.  We  thus  find  the 
moral  constitution  such,  that  our  common  relation- 
ship to  others  impels  us  to  right  action. 

We  are  also  linked  to  a  portion  of  the  race  by 
peculiar  ties.     There  is  the  relation  of  parent  and 


Appetites  and  Passions.  283 

child,  brother  and  sister,  husband  and  wife.  The 
nature  of  man  is  such,  that  the  disgrace  of  any  wrong 
act  done  by  us,  attaches  itself  not  to  us  alone,  as 
reason  would  seem  to  dictate  that  it  ought,  but  also 
to  those  most  nearly  allied  to  us,  for  whom  we  natu- 
rally have  the  strongest  affection.  And  our  vir- 
tues are  the  richest  reward  we  can  make  to  parents, 
and  the  best  legacy  we  can  bequeathe  to  those  who 
come  after  us.  We  are  impelled,  then,  by  the  deep- 
est love  we  have  for  earthly  friends,  to  pursue  a  right 
and  virtuous  course. 

It  seems  wrong  that  the  innocent  should  suffer  in 
any  degree  for  the  sins  of  others  ;  but  the  fact  that 
they  do  suffer,  and  that  those  are  affected  most  for 
whom  we  have  the  deepest  love,  shows  the  strong 
influences  that  have  been  brought  to  bear  upon  us 
through  our  most  intimate  relationships,  in  favor  of 
virtue  ;  and  the  certainty  that  the  Being  who  esta- 
blished these  relations,  desired  virtue  in  us  even  more 
than  the  happiness  growing  out  of  these  relations. 

No  man  ever  enjoyed  himself  under  the  influence 
of  hate,  jealousy,  anger,  or  any  passion  that  counsels 
evil  to  his  fellow-men.  Such  passions  are  in  them- 
selves torments,  while  every  sentiment  of  good-will 
towards  men  brings  happiness  by  its  very  exercise. 
Nothing  can  be  plainer  than  that  He  who  esta- 
blished this  relation,  desired  us  to  seek  the  happiness 
of  our  fellow-men. 

We  find  in  ourselves  certain  appetites  and  pas- 
sions. They  are  needful  for  us,  administering  to 
our  enjoyment  and  the  good  of  society  when  indulg- 


284  Natural  Theology. 

ed  in  with  moderation,  but  bringing  disease  of  body, 
decay  of  mind,  and  the  degradation  of  the  whole  man 
when  indulged  in  to  excess.  The  common  obser- 
vation of  men  has  convinced  them  that  avarice,  glut- 
tony, drunkenness,  and  licentiousness,  are  sources 
of  degradation  and  suffering.  They  plainly  have  not 
the  approval  of  Him  who  made  man. 

There  is  among  men  a  vast  amount  of  physical 
suffering  ;  the  misery  of  want,  the  pains  of  disease, 
and  Death  itself,  the  King  of  Terrors.  The  great 
amount  of  this  suffering  can  be  traced  directly  to 
vice.  It  not  only  brings  anguish  of  mind,  but  it 
often  sows  the  seeds  of  disease  in  us,  to  be  transmit- 
ted to  our  children,  to  bear  in  us  and  in  them  its 
legitimate  fruits — pain  and  early  death.  How  much 
of  the  suffering  around  us  from  poverty  and  disease 
can  thus  be  accounted  for,  and  how  much  more 
might  be  thus  connected  with  vicious  courses  of  life, 
by  going  back  and  searching  the  history  of  past 
generations ! 

So  far  we  have  considered  man's  moral,  physical, 
and  social  nature  as  directly  demanding  a  virtuous 
life  of  him.  They  all  three  work  in  the  same  direc- 
tion. But  the  physical  world  is  also  adapted  to  se- 
cure this.  The  common  wants  of  life,  and  the  desires 
created  by  civilization,  are  constantly  demanding 
more  labor.  Labor  is  painful,  or  at  least  it  has  such 
an  effect  upon  the  system  as  restrains  the  man  from 
vicious  action.  It  gives  health  and  vigor  to  the 
body,  and  yet  has  a  tendency  to  moderate  those  ap- 
petites and  passions  that  are  so  apt  to  injure  and 


Incentives  to    Virtue.  285 

destroy  men  by  their  over-indulgence.  When  men 
are  so  situated  that  they  never  know  what  it  is  to 
labor  with  mind  or  body,  they  are  generally  found 
walking  in  that  broad  road  that  leads  to  misery  and 
death.  An  Eden  would  be  fitted  for  a  race  that  had 
no  tendency  to  over-indulgence  and  sin.  But  this 
world  as  it  is,  with  its  thorns  and  thistles,  its  blight 
and  mildew,  its  frosts  and  tempests,  its  whole  ma- 
chinery demanding  labor,  that  man  should  eat  his 
bread  by  the  sweat  of  his  face,  is  the  best  possible 
world  for  us  as  we  are  now  constituted.  A  world 
demanding  no  fatiguing  labor  is  only  fitted  for  per- 
fect beings. 

But  it  may  be  asked  :  Why  should  man  be  so 
constituted,  that  all  these  relations  producing  ,so 
much  suffering  should  be  needed  to  induce  him  to 
choose  virtue  instead  of  vice  ?  The  object  we  have 
in  view  does  not  demand  of  us  an  answer  to  this 
question,  nor  does  the  place  I  occupy  allow  me  to 
enter  the  contested  field  of  theology  to  give  my 
opinion  of  the  origin  of  sin  and  suffering  in  the 
world.  They  are  here.  We  accept  the  fact,  and 
simply  inquire  if  the  constitution  of  man  and  of  this 
physical  universe  are  such  as  to  encourage  men  in 
vicious  courses  or  to  check  them.  On  this  point 
we  think  nothing  can  be  plainer  than  that  the  path 
of  virtue  is  the  path  of  peace.  And  if  we  accept  all 
these  relations  as  established  by  a  personal  Being, 
we  can  infer  nothing  with  greater  certainty  than 
that  He  is  actuated  by  love  to  man  and  hatred  of 
sin ;  that  He  has  so  constituted  us  and  the  world 


286  Natural  Theology. 

as  to  bring  strong  inducements  to  bear  upon  us  to 
live  virtuous  lives.  If  we  choose  vice,  His  love  will 
not  save  us  from  suffering,  but  manifests  itself 
rather  by  scourging  us  back  into  paths  of  rectitude 
and  virtue. 

But  when  we  have  seen  how  little  man  can  accom- 
plish in  this  world,  even  when  bending  all  his  ener- 
gies of  body  and  mind  in  the  direction  of  virtue  and 
truth,  we  are  struck  with  the  small  results  reached 
by  him  compared  with  his  abilities  and  desires.  He 
evidently  has  the  capacity  for  unlimited  improve- 
ment, and  the  desire  for  it,  but  time  is  wanting.  All 
other  orders  of  beings  on  this  globe  complete  the 
cycle  of  their  existence,  and  rise  as  high  as  they  are 
fitted  to  rise.  But  man  is  in  this  respect  a  failure,  the 
machinery  is  out  of  joint,  or  rather  if  this  world  is 
his  only  home,  it  never  was  properly  adjusted.  There 
is  no  possibility  of  his  rising  so  high  in  this  world 
as  to  satisfy  the  conditions  of  his  intellectual  being. 
His  life,  when  longest,  is  but  a  summer's  day  for 
labor ;  while  broad  harvest  fields  wave  before  him 
that  he  feels  conscious  of  the  power  of  gathering,  if 
life  were  longer.  He  can  comprehend  the  possibi- 
lity of  another  life.  He  feels  conscious  of  power  to 
improve  it  and  enjoy  it  for  ever.  He  longs  for  it, 
and  shudders  at  the  prospect  of  oblivion.  Shall  he, 
of  all  created  beings,  be  debarred  from  using  the 
powers  with  which  he  has  been  endowed  ?  Shall 
no  opportunity  be  given  him  for  the  development  of 
those  powers  ?  Shall  he  alone  have  desires  to 
which  there  is  nothing  to  correspond,  so  that  it 


Future  Life.  287 

is  impossible  that  they  shall  ever  be  satisfied  ?  Is 
his  whole  constitution  a  cheat  ?  Shall  every  other 
part  of  nature  show  the  Creator's  love  to  man,  by 
the  provisions  that  are  made  for  his  wants,  but  here 
in  his  highest  aspirations  and  interests,  shall  he  be 
mocked  with  delusions  ?  We  cannot  believe  this. 
It  is  contrary  to  the  whole  analogy  of  nature,  con- 
trary to  every  work  of  the  Creator  which  we  have 
thus  far  studied.  If  there  is  a  Creator  of  man,  who  is 
a  lover  of  truth,  then  man  must  be  immortal.  There 
must  be  a  conscious  existence  for  him  after  this  life. 
Nor  can  we  see  how  the  time  ever  can  come  when 
it  will  be  more  in  accordance  with  his  nature  for 
consciousness  to  cease  than  it  is  now.  Grant  a 
future  life,  and  the  great  enigma  of  the  present  life 
is  solved  ;  man  stands  complete,  the  last  and  noblest 
work  of  God. 

We  have  now  traced  the  hand  of  a  Creator  in  all 
His  works.  We  have  not  only  seen  evidence  of  pow- 
er, wisdom,  and  skill,  in  the  relations  of  the  physical 
world,  but  we  have  seen  that  all  the  powers  of  man 
are  wisely  balanced.  His  intellectual  and  moral 
natures  have  great  provisions  made  for  them,  and 
still  greater  provisions  are  reasonably  inferred  to  be 
in  store  for  him.  In  this  whole  investigation  we 
have  recognized  a  Being  having  all  the  higher  attri- 
butes of  man,  but  above  him  in  excellence  and  con- 
dition of  existence.  If  this  Being  were  now  to 
throw  aside  the  invisible  form  of  existence  and  ap- 
pear as  man,  as  a  friend  among  us,  what  are  some 
of  the  questions  that  we  should  wish  to  ask  ?     If  He 


288  Natural  Theology. 

has  spoken  to  man  at  all,  these  very  questions  that 
we  need  to  ask  respecting  our  higher  relations  and 
interests,  are  the  questions  He  has  answered. 

We  should  desire  to  know  more  than  we  can  learn 
from  the  world  itself,  of  its  origin  and  of  the  creation 
of  man.  We  should  desire  to  know  in  what  relation 
we  now  stand  to  the  Creator,  and  what  He  requires 
of  us  in  return  for  the  benefits  we  are  receiving  at 
His  hand.  Above  all,  we  should  wish  to  know  some- 
thing more  of  the  future  ;  something  of  what  lies 
beyond  the  grave.  All  these  inquiries  are  answered 
in  the  Bible,  which  comes  to  us  claiming  to  be  the 
Word  of  God.  It  is  not  our  design  to  enter  into 
any  extended  argument  to  prove  the  inspiration  of 
this  book,  but  briefly  to  show  that  it  meets  the  re- 
quirements of  man's  nature,  and  thus  has  a  claim 
founded  on  the  argument  from  design  and  adapta- 
tion, to  be  considered  the  work  of  God.  Although 
it  claims  that  it  was  given  to  man  by  supernatural 
power,  as  the  first  fruits  of  the  earth  were  also  pre- 
pared for  him,  the  Bible  is  a  natural  provision  for 
man's  moral  nature,  as  the  fruits  of  the  earth  are  a 
natural  provision  for  his  physical  wants. 

Let  us  then  trace  the  actual  coincidence  of  the 
moral  instincts  and  desires  of  man  with  the  moral 
law  and  the  teachings  of  the  Bible.  God  is  set  forth 
in  the  Bible  not  only  as  a  Creator,  but  as  our  con- 
stant Preserver,  Benefactor,  and  moral  Governor  ;  or 
as  blending  all  these  characters  in  one,  our  Father 
in  Heaven.  We  are  assured  that  in  His  hand  our 
breath  is,  and  His  are  all  our  ways  ;  that  even  the 


The  Bible.  289 

very  hairs  of  our  heads  are  all  numbered.  This 
ever-present  care  is  foreshadowed  by  those  all-per- 
vading forces  that  affect  all  matter,  like  gravitation 
that  binds  suns  and  systems  in  their  place,  and  from 
which  the  floating  dust  in  the  sunbeam  cannot  escape. 
This  assurance  of  constant  care  meets  a  want  in  our 
nature.  It  is  such  care  as  we  should  expect  from 
a  benevolent  Being  of  infinite  power  over  the  help- 
less beings  that  He  had  made  in  His  own  image. 
It  therefore  commends  itself  to  our  reason.  We 
may  for  a  time  forget  our  weakness  ;  but  in  danger, 
when  the  elements  are  abroad  in  their  fury,  or  when 
disease  has  fastened  upon  the  system,  then  it  is  we  feel 
our  need  ;  then  we  desire  and  ask  for  the  very  care, 
protection,  and  support,  which  the  Bible  promises. 

It  recognizes  the  need  of  the  human  soul  of  sup- 
port from  without  itself,  and  it  promises  the  favor 
and  protection  of  God  himself  to  all  who  will  seek  it. 

It  comes  to  us  not  only  with  a  Father's  promises 
which  satisfy  the  longings  of  our  hearts,  but  it  lays 
His  commands  upon  us.  This  is  reasonable.  It  is 
in  accordance  with  the  whole  analogy  of  nature  and 
all  our  relations  to  our  fellow-men,  that  where  bene- 
fits are  conferred  there  should  be  corresponding 
obligations  resting  upon  those  receiving  the  favors. 
And  we  are  not  to  judge  of  these  commands  thus 
laid  upon  us,  that  they  are  or  are  not  adapted  to  our 
nature,  by  our  desire  or  want  of  desire  to  obey  them, 
but  by  their  fitness  to  secure  our  highest  good  if 
obeyed.  And  experience  teaches  us  that  as  all 
malevolent  passions  are  torments,  so  all  benevolent 

13 


290  Natural  Theology. 

affections  are  sources  of  pleasure  in  their  very 
exercise.  Love  is  not  only  the  foundation  of  the 
moral  law  of  the  Bible,  but  it  is  the  fulfilling  of  the 
law.  There  is  no  malevolent  feeling  approved  of  in 
the  Bible.  The  moral  law,  then,  not  only  secures 
the  happiness  of  men  by  the  acts  it  enjoins  in  re- 
ference to  each  other,  but  it  brings  happiness  by 
the  very  act  of  obeying.  How  impossible  to  con- 
ceive of  any  more  perfect  adaptation  !  What  is  the 
adaptation  of  the  air  to  the  lung,  of  the  order  and 
beauty  of  the  world  to  the  intellectual  and  emotional 
nature  of  man,  compared  with  this  adaptation  of 
the  moral  law  to  his  moral  nature,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  very  act  of  obedience  secures  to  him 
never-failing  enjoyment  and  ever-increasing  strength ! 
What  higher  evidence  of  design  ! 

In  its  special  commands  we  find  the  same  adapta- 
tion to  the  welfare  of  the  race.  In  the  reverence 
for  the  aged  and  to  rulers,  in  obedience  to  law,  in 
kindness  to  the  unfortunate,  we  have  those  prin- 
ciples which  would  promote  the  welfare  and  happi- 
ness of  individuals  and  communities. 

Civilization  is  the  natural  and  highest  state  of 
society  ;  and  it  is  only  by  following  the  precepts  of 
the  Bible,  in  private  and  public  action,  that  a  real 
civilization  can  be  secured  and  maintained.  There 
may  come  to  be  for  a  time  a  high  degree  of  polish 
and  culture  without  the  recognition  of  these  pre- 
cepts, but  it  will  be  only  a  sudden  glare  of  light. 
Such  a  civilization  will  be  cruel,  and  contain  within 
itself  the  elements  of  its  own  destruction. 


The  Bible.  291 

Nor  does  the  Bible  show  its  adaptation  to  the 
nature  of  man  only  in  what  it  demands.  It  is 
equally  apparent  in  what  it  forbids.  The  Bible  lays 
no  prohibition  upon  man  that  will  diminish  his  en- 
joyment. Its  word  of  warning  is  never  heard  except 
as  we  are  ready  to  enter  those  paths  that  are  sure 
to  lead  to  ruin  if  we  follow  them  to  the  end.  Their 
entrance  may  be  bordered  with  flowers  and  promise 
every  sensual  gratification,  and  the  simple  may  enter 
in  with  songs  and  laughter ;  but  those  who  have 
learned  the  history  of  the  past  and  have  moral 
power  to  restrain  themselves,  never  enter  them. 
When  they  seek  their  highest  good  in  the  light  of 
history  and  their  own  constitution,  they  are  found 
walking  according  to  the  precepts  of  the  Bible.  In 
it  every  evil  passion,  every  debasing  desire,  is  de- 
nounced. It  stands  and  utters  its  warning  voice 
against  intemperance,  licentiousness,  avarice,  and 
injustice.  It  declares  that  those  who  take  pleasure 
in  them  shall  in  the  end  find  sorrow.  The  expe- 
rience of  thousands  has  been  sad  evidence  of  the 
truth  of  its  declarations.  It  is  venerable  with  the 
age  of  centuries,  but  it  is  no  more  obsolete  nor 
wanting  in  its  adaptations  to  man  now  than  the 
light  of  day  is  to  the  eye,  or  water  to  the  thirsty 
soul.  It  goes  on  filling  its  place  in  supplying  the 
wants  of  man,  like  all  the  great  provisions  that  have 
been  made  for  him  in  nature. 

Thus  far  we  have  found  in  the  Bible  only  what  is 
intimated  in  nature.  The  written  word  speaks,  in- 
deed, with  an  explicitness  that  we  search  for  in  vain 


292  Natural  Theology. 

among  mere  contrivances  and  tendencies.  But  we 
should  naturally  expect  that  such  a  book  would  not 
only  make  clearer  the  revelations  of  nature,  but  that 
it  would  also  give  some  knowledge  that  nature  does 
not  reveal  at  all.  We  should  expect  it,  because 
man's  nature  demands  an  answer  to  some  questions 
to  which  no  satisfactory  answer  can  be  found  in  na- 
ture. As  we  rise  from  the  natural  to  the  spiritual 
world,  we  should  expect  that  there  would  be  some 
exceptions  to  the  ordinary  laws  of  nature,  or  more 
strictly  that  new  laws  would  be  discovered  distinct 
in  kind  from  anything  in  the  physical  world,  as  we 
find  the  vital  force  presenting  phenomena  very  dif- 
ferent if  not  antagonistic  to  gravitation  and  other 
physical  forces. 

One  question  of  vast  importance  to  the  happiness 
of  man  is  this  : — Can  sin  be  forgiven  ?  If  left  to 
the  light  of  nature  alone,  I  know  not  where  to  look 
for  an  affirmative  answer.  A  remedy  for  the  effects 
of  sin  may  be  intimated  by  the  healing  leaves  and 
balsams  ;  but  that  sin  can  be  forgiven  through  re- 
pentance, finds  no  parallel  in  any  of  our  relations 
to  nature.  We  might  argue  from  our  own  constitu- 
tion, that  our  Creator  would  on  some  conditions  blot 
out  our  sins  as  we  forgive  others.  But  we  never  could 
be  sure  of  this  ;  and  if  we  accepted  it  as  true,  the 
conditions  of  His  forgiveness  no  one  could  with  cer- 
tainty discover.  We  can  find  nothing  to  favor  for- 
giveness of  sin  in  all  the  physical  universe.  All  its 
laws  answer,  No !  They  are  inexorable.  The  fire 
burns,  and  the  cold  seals  up  the  fountains  of  life. 


Forgiveness  of  Sin.  293 

He  who  leaps  from  the  precipice  must  fall ;  he  who 
transgresses  the  laws  of  health  must  pay  the 
penalty,  and  no  repentance  will  change  the  result. 
Is  this  stern  law  of  strict  penalty  to  hold  dominion 
over  man  as  a  moral  being  ?  When  he  has  sinned, 
must  he  carry  the  burden  for  ever  ?  Must  he  be 
goaded  by  the  stings  of  conscience,  and  his  relations 
to  his  Creator  be  so  changed  that  he  must  ever  re- 
main a  guilty  being  in  his  presence  ?  Must  he  be 
drawn  down  by  every  sin  for  ever,  as  gravitation 
brings  bodies  towards  the  centre  ?  If  so,  the  world 
would  be  gloomy  indeed,  and  deep  despair  would 
settle  down  upon  the  most  thoughtful  of  the  race. 
But  the  Bible  plainly  proclaims  forgiveness  on  the 
condition  of  repentance. 

Repentance  is  not  only  enjoined  as  a. duty,  but  for- 
giveness of  sin  and  acceptance  with  God  are  declar- 
ed to  be  the  result.  It  is  not  our  province  to  enter 
upon  any  defence  of  Christianity,  nor  to  present  any 
technical  theological  explanations  as  to  the  nature 
of  this  repentance,  nor  the  ground  on  which  free  for- 
giveness is  offered  in  the  Bible.  We  simply  accept 
the  declaration  that  man  may  be  forgiven  and  the 
penalty  of  the  broken  law  escaped.  We  do  not  now 
inquire  for  methods,  but  for  results.  And  this  great 
truth  of  forgiveness  of  sin  through  repentance  meets 
one  of  the  deepest  wants  of  man's  nature.  It  puts 
the  key  into  his  own  hand  to  open  his  prison  door, 
and  gives  hope  and  courage  instead  of  settled  gloom 
and  despair. 

The  last  great  truth  in  respect  to  which  man 


294  Natural  Theology. 

needs  light  from  a  written  word,  is  the  immortality 
of  the  soul.  We  have  already  seen  from  the  consti- 
tution of  man  that  immortality  is  needed  to  make 
him  correspond  in  completeness  to  other  created 
beings.  But  when  from  the  light  of  nature  we  are 
led  to  admit  the  fact  of  immortality,  how  vague  must 
be  all  our  conclusions  respecting  a  world  which  the 
body  does  not  enter!  "It  is  a  dread  unknown," 
from  which  we  shrink  almost  as  much  as  from  anni- 
hilation. Besides  all  this,  belief  in  a  future  life,  so 
essential  to  the  highest  well-being  of  this  life,  could 
never  exist  with  any  defmiteness  among  the  mass 
of  mankind  if  left  to  the  light  of  nature.  It  needed 
the  Bible  to  bring  life  and  immortality  to  light.  It 
was  needed  that  the  dead  should  be  raised,  and  that 
our  Saviour  himself  should  rise  from  the  tomb,  to 
make  immortality  anything  more  than  a  grand  phi- 
losophical speculation.  The  future  life  as  presented 
in  the  Bible,  is  all  that  can  be  desired  to  satisfy  the 
wants  of  the  whole  being.  The  power  of  language 
is  exhausted  in  describing  the  blessings  of  that  state 
which  all  may  enjoy. 

We  have  then  in  the  Bible  a  guide  of  life  which 
the  experience  of  all  past  ages  has  proved  to  be 
the  best  for  the  progress  and  happiness  of  the 
race.  The  wisdom  of  the  present  can  devise 
nothing  better.  We  have  in  it  a  plain  statement 
of  our  present  relations  to  our  Creator.  We  have 
not  only  the  assurance  of  a  future  life,  but  its 
conditions  are  so  fully  set  forth,  that  nothing 
more  can  be  added  to  influence  the  present  life, 


Conclusion.  295 

or   satisfy  the  highest   aspirations    of  the    human 
soul. 

In  the  Bible  the  spiritual  nature  of  man  finds  that 
perfect  adaptation,  which  the  physical  nature  finds 
in  the  world.  And  if  there  is  found  in  man  anything 
that  rebels  against  the  Bible,  it  never  fails  to  tend 
to  degradation.  So  that  in  every  respect,  when  men 
follow  the  Bible  and  when  they  reject  it,  there  is 
proof  that  it  is  fitted  for  man  ;  that  there  is  no  sub- 
stitute for  it.  With  its  truths,  he  is  complete  ;  with- 
out them,  he  is  an  unsolved  enigma,  a  being  groping 
his  way  in  blindness,  he  knows  not  whither.  He 
is  in  a  prison  of  doubt,  and  there  in  darkness  he 
must  remain  ;  for  not  even  the  wisest  of  men  can, 
without  the  Bible,  solve  the  questions  which  his 
spiritual  nature  suggests.  If  there  is  in  the  whole 
range  of  nature  a  case  of  adaptation  more  varied  and 
complete  than  the  Bible  to  the  wants  of  man,  we 
know  not  where  to  look  for  it.  We  accept  it  as  the 
grand  provision,  worthy  of  the  being  for  whom  it 
was  made,  worthy  of  the  infinite  Creator  by  whom 
it  was  bestowed. 


LECTURE  XII. 

THE  MOSAIC  AND  GEOLOGIC  RECORDS. 

Natural  religion  not  sufficient. — Supposed  origin  of  the  Bible. 
— Correspondence  to  the  works  of  nature. — Seeming  disa- 
greement.— First  chapter  of  Genesis. — Testimony  of  Hum- 
boldt.— Pier  pose  of  the  Bible  demands  some  account  of  the 
creation. —  The  position  taken  in  the  argument. — Chemistry 
our  guide  before  the  sedimentary  rocks. — Progress  in  crea- 
tion.— First  condition  of  matter. — Gravitation.— Effect  of 
bringing  particles  together. — Light. — Nott  and  Gliddon. — 
Geologic  day. — Hugh  Miller's  view. — Firmament. — Office 
of  the  atmosphere.~Dry  land.— Introduction  of  life— Plants 
created  first. — Suit  and  Moon. —  Water  animals  and  birds. 
— Land  animals. — Man. — Picture  of  creation  as  presented 
to  an  intelligent  being. — Seventh  day. — Conclusion. 

We  have  now  considered  the  Bible  as  a  provision 
made  to  meet  certain  wants  of  man,  growing  out  of 
desires  and  capacities  implanted  in  him.  In  this 
respect  it  is  such  a  provision  as  we  might  expect, 
from  the  whole  analogy  of  nature,  would  be  made. 
By  accepting  the  Bible,  we  round  out  and  complete 
the  argument  from  design,  as  shown  by  adaptation 
of  means  to  ends.  Without  the  Bible,  man,  in  the 
desires  of  his  highest  nature,  would  be  like  a  being 
created  with  the  torment  of  thirst,  in  a  world  desti- 
tute of  water ;  or  with  a  perfect  eye,  in  a  world  of 
eternal  darkness ;  or  with  the  desire  to  breathe, 
where  no  air  ever  existed. 


Revelation. 


297 


The  defenders  of  natural  religion  cannot  stop 
when  they  reach  the  Bible.  It  is  only  when  this 
keystone  is  in  its  place,  that  the  arch  of  argument 
will  stand.  Natural  religion  can  never  supersede  a 
written  Revelation.  Nature  simply  assures  us  that 
there  is  a  God,  and  that  He  has  established  certain 
relations  for  us.  It  then  leaves  us  in  doubt  in 
regard  to  the  consequences  of  our  relationship  to 
Him.  So  far  from  taking  the  place  of  Revela- 
tion, Natural  Theology,  when  rightly  studied,  impels 
the  soul  to  cry  out  for  the  living  God  ;  to  desire 
to  hear  the  Word  of  Him  whose  handiwork  is 
seen  in  the  heavens,  and  in  the  machinery  and 
adorning  of  our  earth.  It  prepares  men  to  expect 
Revelation.  And  as  men  advance  in  civilization 
and  science,  the  Bible  becomes  more  and  more 
necessary. 

But  it  may  be  said  that  this  Bible  is  the  work  of 
man,  and  it  meets  his  wants  because  it  has  grown 
out  of  his  wants.  These  desires  and  capacities, 
of  which  men  are  conscious,  have  led  them  to 
wander  in  the  field  of  imagination  to  find  conditions 
to  meet  the  wants  of  their  spiritual  nature.  And 
these  conditions  are  embodied  in  the  God  of  the 
Bible,  and  the  future  world  which  it  reveals. 
Men  with  different  desires  would  have  a  different  . 
Revelation,  and  thus  it  happens  that  the  Bible  is 
only  one  of  the  Sacred  Books  that  have  been  ac- 
cepted by  men. 

The  Bible  is  thus  presented  as  the  work  of  dream- 
ing enthusiasts,  who  have  given  the  outgrowth  of 

13* 


298  Natural  Theology. 

their  own  yearnings  as  the  revelation  of  things  that 
do  exist.  There  are  various  arguments  against  this 
view,  which  belong  strictly  to  the  theologian  ;  but 
there  is  one  argument  against  it  which  fairly  belongs 
to  natural  religion.  It  is  the  actual  correspondence 
of  the  Bible  with  the  works  of  nature.  In  this  re- 
spect it  is  peculiar.  Written  in  an  early  age,  by  a 
people  little  versed  in  the  natural  sciences,  it  chal- 
lenges criticism  in  this  respect.  As  morals  and  poli- 
tics have  never  gone  beyond  the  principles  laid  down 
in  the  Bible,  so  science  has  found  nothing  here  con- 
trary to  its  teachings.  All  seeming  collision,  and  all 
fear  of  collision,  have  arisen  from  an  ignorance  of 
nature,  or  that  narrow  view  of  Bible  exegesis  which 
is  constantly  transferring  something  of  the  reverence 
which  is  natural  for  the  Bible,  to  the  old  commenta- 
tors, who  have  explained  the  Bible.  To  show  the 
actual  correspondence  of  the  Bible  with  the  works 
of  nature,  no  better  portion  can  be  selected  than 
the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  ;  for  there  alone  are  the 
operations  of  nature  made  the  object  of  special  reve- 
lation. If  any  portion  of  the  Bible  presents  claims 
to  be  inspired,  it  is  certainly  this  portion  ;  for  it 
claims  to  record  events  that  transpired  before  man 
was  created. 

In  other  places,  nature  is  referred  to  only  for 
illustration,  and  hence  the  common  usage  of  speak- 
ing of  things  simply  as  they  appear  must  be  ex- 
pected. But  when  the  Bible  proposes  to  give  a 
history  of  the  creation,  it  must  ultimately  stand  or 
fall  by  that  record.     It  will  survive  all  the  mistakes 


Nature  and  the  Bible.  299 

made  in  exegesis  ;  but  if  ever  the  time  comes  when 
it  is  plainly  convicted  of  error  here,  its  infallibility 
is  gone.  But  it  is  not  enough  for  the  sceptic  to 
overturn  any  attempted  harmony  of  nature  with  the 
Bible  ;  he  must  show  that  there  is  an  actual  contra- 
diction between  them.  And  we  are  not  disposed1 
to  take  refuge  in  pictorial  representations  and  alle- 
gories, to  escape  the  danger  of  his  criticism.  If 
the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  can  be  explained  away 
into  an  airy  nothing,  the  same  may  be  true  of  the 
rest  of  the  Bible.  If  the  Bible  is  what  it  claims  to 
be,  we  believe  that  a  real  correspondence  will  be 
found  between  its  description  of  creation  and  the 
structure  of  the  earth— as  perfect  a  correspondence 
as  the  laws  of  language  and  the  object  in  view 
would  allow.  It  is  not  important  here  to  discuss 
the  date  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  We  have  no 
doubt  Moses  was  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch  ;  but 
if  it  were  written  at  a  later  day,  even  as  some  self- 
confident  critics  affirm  as  late  as  the  time  of  David, 
there  would  be  no  explanation  given  how  such  a 
Book  could  have  been  written  by  the  men  of  that 
time.  We  look  in  vain,  among  the  surrounding 
nations,  for  evidence  of  the  exalted  notions^of  God 
and  the  creation  which  are  found  in  every  portion 
of  the  Bible. 

We  are  to  remember  that  this  Book  is  not  the  pro- 
duct of  one  man,  nor  of  one  school  of  philosophers. 
It  is  the  collected  writings  of  ages — of  men  in  the 
highest  and  lowest  stations  of  life — of  those  versed 
in  the  sciences  of  their  times,  and  those  among  the 


300  Natural  Theology. 

unlearned  and  ignorant.  But  in  not  a  single  book 
of  the  Bible  can  be  found  any  expression  that  can 
be  reasonably  tortured  into  antagonism  to  that  high 
and  pure  Monotheism  which  the  highest  philosophy 
must  accept,  nor  against  the  revelations  of  science 
in  the  physical  world.  References  to  science  are 
never  introduced  in  the  Bible  for  their  own  sake  ; 
but  whenever  introduced,  if  fairly  tested  by  the  laws 
of  language,  they  meet  the  requirements  of  every 
science  as  fully  as  any  book  written  at  the  present 
time  for  the  same  purpose  would  meet  the  require- 
ments of  any  science. 

If  we  take  the  books  not  strictly  scientific,  written 
by  the  most  learned  men  within  the  last  ten  years, 
by  men  conversant  with  the  sciences,  their  illustra- 
tions and  references  to  nature  are  no  more  in  accord- 
ance with  science  than  the  Hebrew  Scriptures. 
The  grand  and  clear  conceptions  of  the  universe 
which  they  present,  have  been  acknowledged  even 
by  Humboldt,  who  was  certainly  as  competent  as 
any  man  that  ever  lived  to  appreciate  the  accuracy 
and  significance  of  the  language  in  describing  the 
physical  creation.  Nor  can  he  be  charged  with  any 
undue  desire  to  magnify  the  Bible,  or  to  substantiate 
its  claims.  "  It  is,"  says  he,  "  a  characteristic  of 
the  poetry  of  the  Hebrews,  that  as  a  reflex  of  Mo- 
notheism, it  always  embraces  the  universe  in  its 
unity,  comprising  both  terrestrial  life  and  the  lumi- 
nous realms  of  space ;  it  dwells  but  rarely  on  the 
individuality  of  phenomena,  preferring  the  contem- 
plation of  great  masses.     The  Hebrew  poet  does 


Testimony  of  Humboldt.  301 

not  depict  nature  as  a  self-dependent  object,  glo- 
rious in  its  individual  beauty,  but  always  as  in  rela- 
tion or  subjection  to  a  higher  spiritual  power.  Na- 
ture is  to  him  a  work  of  creation,  and  order  the 
living  expression  of  the  omnipresence  of  the  Divi- 
nity in  the  visible  world." 

And  in  reference  to  the  one  hundred  and  fourth 
Psalm,  he  holds  this  remarkable  language  :  "  We  are 
astonished  to  find  in  a  lyrical  poem  of  such  limited 
compass,  the  whole  universe — the  heavens  and  the 
earth — sketched  with  a  few  bold  touches."  This  is 
the  testimony  of  him  who  had  seen  more  of  nature 
than  any  other  man  that  ever  lived ;  had  looked 
upon  the  heavens  and  the  earth  with  a  scientific 
eye,  gathering  those  grand  principles  which  he  has 
woven  into  his  great  work,  the  Cosmos.  And  with 
all  his  knowledge  gathered  by  travel,  from  books 
and  with  converse  with  the  savans  of  his  age,  he 
acknowledges  his  inability  to  equal  the  Hebrew  poet 
in  delineating  the  universe.  He  is  astonished  at 
the  accuracy  with  which  the  whole  subject  is  set 
forth  by  the  Hebrew  bard  in  the  dark  ages  of  the 
world's  scientific  history.  After  such  testimony,  it 
is  no  unfair  claim  to  make,  that  those,  who  flippantly 
talk  of  the  Bible  as  being  in  whole  or  in  part  obso- 
lete and  contradictory  to  the  modern  revelations  of 
science,  shall  show  us  some  tangible  proof  of  their 
assertions  that  shall  at  least  offset  the  testimony  of 
the  author  of  the  Cosmos. 

The  whole  Bible  being  written  confessedly  for  the 
moral  instruction  of  the  race,  we  expect  to  find  in  it 


302  Natural  Theology. 

only  so  much  of  nature  as  its  purpose  demands.  That 
purpose  certainly  demands  some  account  of  the  pre- 
sent order  of  things.  All  that  could  be  required  of 
such  an  account  would  be  that  it  should  be  sufficiently 
explicit  to  answer  its  purpose  of  assuring  the  race 
that  the  world  was  created  by  God,  who  still  con- 
tinues to  rule  it,  and  that  its  bold  touches  should 
be  so  truthful  that  the  revelations  of  science  should 
in  the  end  harmonize  with  them.  No  such  account 
can  be  held  responsible  for  the  opinions  or  mistakes 
of  those  who  have  attempted  to  explain  it.  Most 
of  the  Christian  world  believe  that  the  coming  of 
the  Messiah  was  foretold  by  the  prophets,  and  that 
his  character  was  perfectly  sketched  by  them ;  but 
the  whole  Jewish  nation,  to  this  day,  while  accept- 
ing the  Old  Testament,  regard  Jesus  of  Nazareth 
as  an  impostor,  and  are  still  looking  for  a  Messiah 
whose  character  shall  harmonize  with  the  Scriptures. 
While  there  is  such  a  diversity  of  opinion  in  regard 
to  the  character  of  Christ  compared  with  the  pro- 
phecies respecting  the  Messiah,  it  is  not  strange 
that  there  should  be  difference  of  belief  in  regard 
to  the  correspondence  of  the  Bible  and  the  structure 
of  the  earth.  We  doubt  very  much  whether  any 
man  has  science  enough  to  trace  out  the  corre- 
spondence fully,  even  to  the  satisfaction  of  his  own 
mind.  But  on  the  other  hand,  we  are  quite  as  sure 
of  the  statement  which  we  tried  to  substantiate  in 
the  early  part  of  this  course,  that  the  account  of  the 
creation  of  organic  beings  given  in  Genesis,  is  as 
probable,  viewed  from  a  scientific  stand-point,  as  any 


Early  History  of  the  Earth.  303 

theory  of  creation  that  has  ever  been  broached. 
Now,  as  to  the  second  question,  whether  that  whole 
account  really  accords  with  the  revelations  of  geo- 
logy, we  answer  that  we  believe  its  correspondence 
is  such  that  if  we  cannot  in  every  instance  be  sure 
we  are  right,  we  can  challenge  opposers  to  show  a 
want  of  agreement.  On  this  point,  in  the  present 
state  of  science,  we  choose  to  take  the  position 
assumed  by  Butler  in  his  Analogy,  respecting  the 
immortality  of  the  soul  ;  that  the  contrary  cannot 
be  shown.  Having  made  these  explanations,  and 
wishing  to  be  distinctly  understood  as  disclaiming 
all  pretence  of  absolute  certainty,  we  proceed  to 
show  what  seems  to  be  a  reasonable  correspondence 
of  the  Bible  account  of  creation  with  the  revelations 
of  science.  The  ground  has  been  traversed  by  able 
men,  and  in  such  investigations  we  gladly  borrow 
from  them  all  the  light  they  can  shed  upon  our 
pathway.  * 

There  was  a  long  history  to  our  globe  before  any 
permanent  records  were  left  in  the  sedimentary 
rocks.  When  we  have  gone  back  to  the  first  forms 
of  life  that  appeared  upon  the  globe,  and  to  the  deep 
rocks  below  them,  we  look  off  into  what  has  been 
regarded  by  Hugh  Miller  and  some  other  geologists 
as  a  dark  unknown.  It  is  by  the  light  of  chemistry 
alone  that  we  can  thread  our  way  back  beyond  the 
positive  record  of  geologic  formations.     And  we  be- 

*  It  is  proper  to  state  that  this  lecture  was  prepared  twelve  years  ago,  essentially 
as  it  now  stands.  It  is  impossible  in  a  single  lecture  to  give  a  full  discussion  of  the 
subject  or  to  quote  from  authors.  Those  who  would  fully  understand  the  present 
state  of  the  discussion,  should  read  Hugh  Miller,  Dana,  Lewis,  and  Dawson. 


304  Natural  Theology. 

lieve,  that  a  knowledge  of  chemistry  and  the  physi- 
cal forces  of  matter  will  guide  us  as  safely  here,  as 
the  remains  of  animals  and  plants  do  in  unfolding 
the  later  history  of  the  globe. 

"  In  the  beginning  God  created  the  heavens  and  the 
earth;" — a  grand,  sublime  announcement — which 
is  borne  out  by  the  evidence  of  wisdom  and  skill  in 
all  organic  beings,  in  the  structure  of  the  globe  and 
the  constitution  of  matter  itself.  It  is  the  very  sen- 
tence we  should  select  to  embody  the  results  of  all 
the  investigations  presented  in  this  series  of  lec- 
tures. 

But  the  writer  does  not  leave  the  account  here. 
The  omnipotent  God  of  the  Jews  might  well  be  re- 
presented as  speaking  the  world  into  existence  in  a 
moment.  But  instead  of  this,  the  lapse  of  time, 
the  succession  of  days  and  progress  in  creation 
from  lower  to  higher  forms  of  life,  are  all  asserted. 
Changes  are  described  as  occurring  before  life  was 
introduced,  and  then  life  rises  to  higher  and  higher 
forms  till  man  appears.  And  to  this  all  science 
agrees.  It  is  not  to  this  grand  outline  that  objection 
is  made,  but  to  specific  things,  which  we  will  notice 
in  their  proper  place. 

The  second  verse  describes  the  earliest  condition 
of  the  earth. 

"  And  the  earth  was  without  form  and  void,  and 
dark7iess  was  upon  the  face  of  the  deep!' 

It  seems  as  though  every  chemist  must  believe 
that  there  was  a  time  when  the  materials  of  our 
earth,  and  probably  of  the  solar  system,  floated  in 


Light.  305 

space    in   a   gaseous    form.      If    so,   no    language 
could  better  describe  the  condition  : 

"  Emptiness  and  desolation  " — "  Without  form  and 
void!' 

And  the  Spirit  of  God  moved  upon  the  face  of  the 
waters,  or  fluids,  which  would  represent  all  the 
materials  of  which  the  globe  would  ultimately  be 
formed.  God  is  represented  as  acting  directly,  be- 
cause the  forces  are  only  his  method  of  action.  Now 
every  scientific  man  knows,  that  if  the  materials 
existed  in  a  gaseous  form  according  to  the  theory 
of  Laplace,  the  first  force  called  into  action  would 
be  gravitation — that  force  that  binds  planets  in  their 
orbits,  and  from  which  the  invisible  atom  cannot 
escape.  The  rushing  together  of  these  elements 
under  the  action  of  this  force,  which  gives  the  earth 
its  form,  might  well  be  called  the  moving  of  the 
Spirit  of  God.  If  God  is  the  Creator  of  the  earth 
and  the  controller  of  all  its  changes,  no  language 
could  be  better  chosen  to  represent  movements  pro- 
duced by  this  force,  which  must  necessarily  have 
been  the  first  called  into  action  to  bring  the  parti- 
cles together.  For  it  is  gravitation  alone  that  acts 
upon  all  matter  and  at  all  distances. 

Now  when  this  force  was  brought  into  action, 
we  look  into  the  nature  of  matter  by  the  light  of 
chemistry  to  see  what  results  would  follow.  And 
when  we  have  transcribed  the  words  of  Moses,  we 
have  the  exact  result  which  the  latest  revelations 
of  science  show  must  have  followed. 

"  And  God  said,  Let  there  be  light ;  and  there  was 


306  Natural  Theology. 

light."    Light  is  not  spoken  of  as  something  created, 
but  as  a  result. 

When  the  materials  of  which  this  globe  is  com- 
posed were  brought  together  by  gravitation,  the 
simple  condensation  and  chemical  action  both  com- 
bined to  produce  light  and  heat.  The  rocks  and 
waters  of  the  globe  are  the  result  of  combustion. 
We  have  seen  the  compound  blow-pipe  in  which 
iron  burns  like  straw,  and  platinum  vanishes  in 
vapor.  That  flame  is  simply  the  union  of  oxygen 
with  hydrogen  when  only  enough  combines  to  form 
a  few  drops  of  water.  Who  can  conceive  of  the 
heat  produced  when  the  waters  that  fill  the  ocean 
were  formed  ?  We  have  seen  the  light  when  the 
fine  wire  of  iron  or  steel  or  magnesium  is  burned  ; 
how  must  the  very  heavens  have  been  filled  with 
light  when  the  materials  of  which  all  our  rocks  were 
formed  were  burning !  We  think  of  the  waters  and 
rocks  as  incombustible,  but  we  must  constantly 
remember  that  they  are  the  products  of  combustion  ; 
and  all  we  have  to  do  is  to  decompose  them  and 
bring  the  elements  together  again,  to  have  that  in- 
tense combustion  on  a  small  scale  which  lighted  up 
primeval  darkness,  when  the  mighty  mass  of  ele- 
ments that  compose  this  globe  was  brought  into 
action.  For  ages  the  earth  must  have  remained  a 
blazing  gaseous  globe.  It  may  be  said  this  is  theory ; 
but  it  is  a  theory  that  rests  upon  a  most  substantial 
basis,  the  chemical  nature  of  the  water  and  the 
rocks  of  the  earth.  We  only  state  what  we  believe 
to  be  the  necessary  result  of  bringing  the  materials 


Days  of  Creation.  307 

of  the  globe  together.  It  is  what  we  should  believe 
if  the  Bible  had  never  been  written. 

And  here  we  notice  the  criticism  of  that  once 
famous  book,  Nott  and  Gliddon's  "  Types  of  Man- 
kind," that  Moses  made  a  sad  blunder  when  he  re- 
presented light  as  being  created  three  whole  days 
before  the  sun  and  moon  were  ordained  to  give 
light  upon  the  earth.  The  very  thing  which  they 
refer  to  as  a  blunder,  will  stand  while  chemical 
science  remains,  showing  either  that  Moses  was 
inspired,  or  that  he  was  in  science  far  in  advance 
of  the  authors  of  the  "  Types  of  Mankind." 

If  the  earth  were  thus  formed,  it  must  have  been 
ages  before  any  essential  change  occurred,  or  at 
least  a  change  so  great  as  to  be  reckoned  a  new 
order  of  things. 

And  this  period  we  regard  as  a  geologic  day.  No 
better  language  could  have  been  used  to  describe 
the  beginning  and  close  of  such  a  period.  It  was  in 
the  great  movements  of  God's  work,  what  the  day 
is  in  the  work  of  man,  and  therefore  "ydm"  was  the 
best  word  that  could  be  used  ;  and  no  modern  critic 
that  I  know  of,  even  of  the  most  orthodox  school, 
now  contends  that  "ydm  "  means  simply  twenty-four 
hours.  It  may  mean  that,  and  it  may  stand  for  any 
length  of  time.  We  have  only  to  pass  to  the  second 
chapter  to  see  that  Moses  uses  the  same  word  to 
embrace  the  entire  time  which  he  had  before  de- 
scribed as  constituting  six  yarns.  "  These  are  the  gene- 
rations of  the  heavens  and  the  earth  when  they  were 
created,  in  the  day  that  the  Lord  God  made  the  earth 


308  Natural  Theology. 

and  the  heavens?  There  are  also  other  meanings 
of  the  word  day. 

In  the  fifth  verse  of  the  first  chapter  it  is  also 
said  :  "  God  called  the  light,  day." 

Here  it  is  simply  a  name,  as  God  named  all  the 
works  as  they  were  finished. 

Since  then  we  find  Moses  using  the  word  yoni  in 
the  second  chapter  in  such  a  way  that  all  must  agree 
it  means  a  long  period  ;  and  since  the  best  critics  on 
both  sides  of  the  question  acknowledge  that  yom  is 
not  necessarily  a  period  of  twenty-four  hours,  we 
cannot  see  that  we  do  any  violence  to  the  principles 
of  sound  exegesis  when  we  adopt  that  meaning 
which  harmonizes  with  the  revelations  of  the 
earth. 

In  addition  to  this,  we  may  say  that  Hugh  Mil- 
ler's view  seems  sound  in  his  whole  treatment  of 
the  three  days  which  he  has  attempted  to  account 
for.  We  think  a  legitimate  use  of  the  word  day  is 
in  reference  to  the  time  when  any  order  of  things  so 
took  the  lead  as  to  constitute  a  distinct  epoch.  We 
use  it  now  in  the  same  way.  Washington's  day  was 
when  he  was  exerting  his  influence  in  the  armies 
and  councils  of  the  nation.  And  so  in  the  changes 
in  the  earth's  geologic  history.  They  may  have 
been  going  on  together,  but  the  day  of  each  creation 
was  when  its  activity  rose  above  that  of  all  others, 
having,  as  it  were,  possession  of  the  globe.  And 
these  great  epochs  are  properly  spoken  of  by  Moses 
as  days.  They  began  and  they  closed,  and  he  ap- 
plies the  usual  Jewish  method  of  describing  the  be- 


Geologic  Changes.  309 

ginning  and  close  of  the  natural  day,  "evening"  and 
"morning;"  and  these  terms  do  not  seem  in  any 
respect  to  limit  or  explain  the  word  "  day." 

But  it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  Moses  speaks 
of  three  days,  before  he  represents  the  sun  as  taking 
his  place  in  the  heavens  to  divide  the  day  from  the 
night.  From  which  it  seems  almost  self-evident 
that  an  ordinary  day  could  not  possibly  be  meant  by 
him. 

It  is  plain  that  chemistry  is  the  only  science  that 
can  possibly  guide  us  in  unravelling  the  first  day's 
work  of  creation,  the  production  of  light ;  and  it  is 
by  the  same  science  mainly  that  we  are  to  trace  the 
changes  still  further,  until  we  find  in  the  sediment- 
ary rocks  evidence  of  the  mechanical  action  of  water. 
And  what  would  be  the  changes  which  must  have 
occurred  after  the  mingling  and  union  of  the  ele- 
ments which  we  have  described  as  the  first  epoch 
or  day  of  creation  ? 

We  know  well  what  changes  must  have  occurred, 
if  the  laws  of  matter  were  the  same  then  as  now. 
As  heat  was  radiated  from  the  glowing  earth  into 
space,  the  whole  mass  was  gradually  cooled,  until 
the  materials  of  which  the  rocks  are  composed  be- 
came simply  a  melted  ball  ;  the  air,  the  waters  of 
the  earth,  and  all  volatile  substances,  still  forming  a 
dense  cloud  around  its  whole  surface.  Still  later  a 
crust  was  formed  upon  this  globe  by  cooling,  and 
waters  were  condensed  upon  it,  covering  the  entire 
globe.  For  continents  and  mountains  were  impos- 
sible till  the  crust  in  after  ages  became  thick  enough 


310  Natural  Theology. 

to  hold  its  place  when  thrown  up.  For  countless 
ages  that  crust  must  have  thickened  beneath  the 
waters  that  grew  deeper  and  deeper  as  the  lower 
temperature  of  the  globe  allowed  more  and  more  to 
be  condensed  from  the  air,  until  the  atmosphere, 
with  a  perfect  ocean  beneath  and  dense  clouds 
above,  took  its  place  as  a  divider  of  the  waters 
which  it  holds  to-day.  Thus  by  the  natural  change 
of  the  globe  was  produced  the  condensation  and 
separation  of  the  mingled  elements,  until  the  two 
permanent  gases  which  were  prepared  to  consti- 
tute the  atmosphere  were  left  mainly  free,  and  had 
gained  their  proper  place,  and  had  commenced  one 
of  their  great  offices  in  the  machinery  of  creation. 

How  now  do  the  words  of  the  Bible  correspond 
with  this  description  which  we  have  made,  guided 
by  the  known  laws  of  nature  ? 

"  And  God  said,  Let  there  be  a  firmament  in  the 
midst  of  the  waters,  and  let  it  divide  the  waters  from 
the  waters!' 

The  word  translated  firmament  means  simply  ex- 
panse, anything  that  is  spread  out.  And  the  criti- 
cism that  has  been  made  that  Moses  taught  that 
there  was  a  solid  sphere  above  us,  has  no  foun- 
dation in  the  Holy  Scriptures.  That  doctrine  be- 
longs to  a  later  day,  if  not  to  a  heathen  philosophy. 

The  great  office  of  this  firmament  is  to-day  what 
it  was  when  first  separated  from  the  condensing  ele- 
ments. It  is  the  great  water-bearer.  From  the 
waters  beneath  go  up  the  unseen  streams,  till  in 
the  colder  upper  regions  they  condense  in  clouds 


The  Firmament.  311 

and  pour  down  their  treasures  upon  the  earth.  All 
the  springs  and  rivers  are  pouring  back  into  the 
ocean  the  mighty  tide  which  this  firmament  has 
separated  from  the  waters  beneath,  and  poured  down 
as  from  open  windows  in  the  heavens.  Were  it  not 
for  this  office  of  the  atmosphere  the  earth  would  be 
a  desert.  And  all  the  vast  accumulations  of  sedi- 
mentary rocks  over  the  whole  globe  are  evidence  of 
the  work  it  has  done  in  dividing  and  transporting 
the  waters,  through  all  geologic  ages.  This  was  its 
first  appointed  work,  to  divide  the  waters  from  the 
waters,  and  thus  to  prepare  the  globe  for  man. 
And  we  have  in  the  lowest  stratified  rocks  evidence 
of  its  work  before  any  life  appeared  upon  the  earth. 

And  when  now  the  swift  thunder-cloud  pours 
down  its  deluge,  or  the  wide-spread  storm-cloud 
pours  down,  day  after  day,  its  torrents,  until  the 
swollen  rivers  cannot  contain  the  abundance,  it  is 
the  firmament  established  of  old,  that  divides  the 
waters  beneath  from  the  waters  above.  • 

When  ages  have  rolled  away,  the  earth  covered 
with  the  ocean,  and  far  above  with  a  thick  canopy 
of  cloud,  the  crust  becomes  thick  enough  to  keep 
its  place,  when  lifted  by  forces  beneath,  or  by  the 
contraction  of  the  cooling  mass  within.  Now  it  is 
possible  for  dry  land  to  appear ;  not  only  possible, 
but  the  necessary  result  of  the  continued  cooling  of 
the  earth. 

"And  God  said,  Let  the  waters  under  the  heaven 
be  gathered  together  into  one  place,  and  let  the  dry 
land  appear,  and  it  was  so." 


312  Natural  Theology. 

We  need  not  add  a  single  word.  It  seems  impos- 
sible that  any  chemist  and  geologist  can  be  found, 
who  fails  to  see  the  grand  simplicity  and  accuracy 
of  this  record,  as  corresponding  with  those  ages  in 
the  history  of  our  earth  that  pass  before  him  as  his 
sciences  unravel  the  mystery  of  the  rocks.  He 
sees,  indeed,  the  result  produced  by  what  are  called 
the  forces  of  matter,  while  the  Hebrew  law-giver 
keeps  ever  before  us  the  personal  Creator. 

The  globe  is  now  prepared  for  life.  Its  tempera- 
ture is  reduced,  and  the  pillars  of  the  earth  have 
been  set.  No  lofty  mountains  are  yet  possible,  but 
land  just  above  the  waters. 

Up  to  this  point,  all  changes  could  be  produced 
by  the  known  forces  of  matter  ;  but  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  life  upon  the  globe,  we  have  no  possible  ac- 
count to  give,  except  that  it  was  done  by  creative 
power.  A  new  principle  was  joined  to  matter. 
Let  us  inquire  what  can  be  learned  from  Geology 
of  the  introduction  of  life.  First,  we  infer  that 
plants  were  created  before  animals,  because  all  ani- 
mals depend  upon  them  directly  or  indirectly  for 
food.  We  judge  that  many  existed  of  which  we 
have  no  direct  knowledge,  the  evidence  of  their 
existence  having  been  blotted  out,  unless  it  be  found 
in  veins  of  plumbago  in  the  early  rocks.  But  it  is 
well  settled  that  the  earliest  plants  of  which  we  find 
any  remains  were  of  the  lowest  type — the  flowerless 
plants,  algae,  ferns,  and  the  like.  The  most  abun- 
dant vegetation  was  in  the  coal  period,  when  those 
vast  accumulations  were  stored  away  for  our  use. 


Creatio?i  of  Plants.  3 1 3 

After  that,  higher  types  of  plant  life  appear,  those 
with  flowers  and  seeds  ;  and  at  last,  at  the  time  or 
near  the  time  of  the  introduction  of  man,  those 
plants  most  useful  to  him,  the  fruits  and  cereals, 
were  introduced.  Now,  if  we  look  upon  the  intro- 
duction of  plant  life,  as  one  great  epoch,  how  per- 
fectly it  corresponds  with  the  Bible  account.  "  And 
God  said,  Let  the  earth  bring  forth  grass,  the  herb 
yielding  seed,  a7id  the  fruit-tree  yielding  fruit  after 
his  kind,  whose  seed  is  in  itself  upoit  the  earth,  and 
it  was  so.^ 

The  word  rendered  grass,  should  be  rendered 
the  tender  plant  or  the  budding  plant  springing  up. 
That  it  was  not  ordinary  grass  is  apparent,  because 
that  belongs  with  seed-bearing  plants.  The  de- 
scription applies  well  to  the  early  plants  that  pro- 
duced no  proper  seeds,  the  flowerless  plants  that 
flourished  so  abundantly  till  after  the  coal  period. 
We  have,  then,  the  creation  of  plants  first.  In  this 
both  records  agree.  We  have  the  tender  plants,  the 
seed-bearing  plants,  and  the  fruits  whose  seed  is  in 
themselves.  In  this  account  both  records  agree. 
We  have  plants  coming  to  their  greatest  luxuriance 
in  the  early  age ;  so  that  altogether  the  great  epoch 
which  in  geology  naturally  attracts  our  attention, 
after  the  raising  of  the  land,  is  the  introduction  of 
plant  life,  and  here  the  two  records  agree. 

If  any  say  that  in  the  early  rocks  we  have  more 
animal  than  plant  fossils,  we  admit  it ;  but  every 
man  who  knows  anything  of  geology  knows  why. 
The  early  plants  were  more  easily  decomposed  than 

14 


314  Natural  Theology. 

the  corals  and  shells  that  remain.  But  the  more 
animal  life  we  find,  the  more  plant  life  there  must 
have  been  to  sustain  it. 

We  come  next  to  the  creation  of  the  sun  and 
moon.  "  And  God  said,  Let  there  be  lights  in  the 
firmament  of  heaven,  to  divide  the  day  from  the' 
night ;  and  let  them  be  for  signs  and  for  seasons,  and 
for  days,  and  years.  And  let  them  be  for  light  in  the 
firmament  of  heaven  to  give  light  upon  the  earth : 
ajid  it  was  so." 

It  must  strike  every  one  as  remarkable  that 
Moses  should  give  an  account  of  light  and  the  in- 
troduction of  plants  upon  the  globe,  before  describ- 
ing the  creation  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  from 
which  the  earth  now  receives  its  light  and  heat. 
No  impostor  would  have  done  that.  Now,  if  we 
examine  the  coal  plants  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
we  find  them  plants  of  low  type,  such  as  grow 
luxuriantly  only  in  the  tropics  ;  a  hot,  damp  atmo- 
sphere being  their  best  locality.  These  coal  plants 
are  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  earth.  There 
are  beds  of  coal  in  Greenland,  where  now  only  a  few 
Arctic  plants  can  grow.  It  is  plain  that  in  the  coal 
period  there  was  a  very  high  and  uniform  tempera- 
ture all  over  the  globe  ;  the  heat  of  the  tropics, 
where  the  Greenland  glaciers  now  rest.  This  heat 
so  distributed  could  not  come  from  the  sun  alone, 
but  from  the  earth  not  yet  cool.  It  was  one  great 
hot-house  ;  and  consequently  the  air  was  constantly 
filled  with  dense  clouds  in  its  upper  regions.  For 
ages  there  could  have  been  no  clear  skv  as  we  now 


Ltimi7iaries.  315 

have.  The  sun  existed  in  some  form  all  the  time, 
but  it  had  not  taken  its  place  to  mark  the  seasons. 
Its  heat  was  not  needed  as  it  is  now,  if  it  affected  the 
earth  at  all.  Of  the  necessity  of  its  light,  there  is 
not  the  same  certainty.  The  earth  still  has  its  own 
sources  of  light,  in  the  aurora,  and  in  its  shooting 
stars  which  give  it  scattered  sparks  of  the  same 
light  as  gives  the  sun  its  glow.  It  is  reasonable  to 
infer  that,  from  the  intense  action  of  its  forces,  the 
earth  in  its  early  history  had  light  enough  for  its 
low  type  of  vegetation.  But  if  not,  so  far  as  there 
was  light  from  the  sun,  it  was  dim  and  diffused  light 
struggling  through  the  dense  vapors  ;  the  sun  itself 
probably  never  appearing. 

But  at  the  close  of  the  coal  period,  the  earth  had 
so  far  cooled,  that  condensation  had  probably,  in  a 
measure,  cleared  the  air  ;  and  now  was  the  time 
when  the  sun  could  appear  in  the  heavens  ;  and  the 
cooling  earth  began  to  be  dependent  upon  him  for 
heat  as  well  as  light.  And  the  moon  began  to  give 
borrowed  light,  and  the  stars  to  glitter  in  the  hea- 
vens, where  they  had  been  for  ages,  but  not  for  the 
earth.  They  all  now  had  their  relations  established 
and  their  work  appointed  for  this  earth,  simply  by 
the  changes  in  the  earth  itself.  And  when  they 
were  thus  ordained,  this  was  their  day.  And  the 
evidence  we  have  that  they  were  thus  brought  into 
action,  at  this  time,  is  found  in  the  nature  of  the 
changes  that  then  occurred,  and  the  higher  type  of 
life  that  then  appeared. 

"And  God  said,  Let  the  waters  bring forth  abund- 


3 16  Natural  Theology. 

antly  the  moving  creature  that  hath  life,  and  fowl 
that  may  fly  above  the  earth  in  the  open  firmament 
of  heaven? 

We  now  have  brought  before  us  the  work  of  the 
fifth  day.  It  was  the  day  of  animals  in  the  waters, 
their  day,  because  now  in  their  abundance  and 
magnitude  they  have  possession  of  the  earth.  It 
is  said  that  God  created  great  whales.  The  word 
used  in  the  Hebrew  is  "  tanninim,"  which  undoubt- 
edly means  huge,  devouring  monsters,  like  the  croco- 
dile, the  animal  (tannin)  being  used  as  an  emblem 
of  the  destroying  kings.     (Jer.  li.  34.) 

It  is  a  fitting  word  to  denote  those  saurian  mon- 
sters that  were  the  tyrants  of  the  earth  in  the  Meso- 
zoic  time.  They  filled  the  waters,  while  huge  birds 
and  flying  reptiles  congregated  on  the  shores. 

This  day,  like  the  day  of  the  plants,  has  a  mighty 
sweep  of  time  ;  but  it  was  after  the  coal  period  that 
the  huge  saurians  left  their  remains  in  the  rocks, 
and  reptiles  and  bird-like  monsters  left  their  tracks 
on  the  sandstone  of  the  Connecticut  valley. 

"And  God  said,  Let  the  earth  bring  forth  the  liv- 
ing creature  after  his  kind,  cattle  and  creeping  thing 
and  beast  of  the  earth  after  his  kind ;  and  it  was 
so." 

Here  we  have  the  work  of  the  sixth  day.  The 
dry  land  is  to  have  its  share  of  life,  which  up  to 
this  time  has  been  confined  mainly  to  the  waters. 
And  corresponding  to  this  account,  we  find  the 
sixth  great  epoch  of  the  earth's  geologic  history  to 
be  that  characterized  by  the  abundance  and  the  size 


Creation  of  Man.  317 

of  the  land  animals,  when  the  earth  fairly  trembled 
beneath  the  tread  of  the  mammoths,  the  mastodons, 
and  the  megatheriums.  We  gather  their  bones  in 
almost  all  parts  of  the  earth.  Look  at  the  huge 
monsters  that  have  been  dug  up  in  our  own  country, 
and  in  South  America.  In  the  far  north,  their 
tusks  supply  ivory  for  exportation.  This  Tertiary 
and  post-Tertiary  period,  perfectly  corresponds  to 
the  picture  of  the  sixth  day's  work.  It  was  the  day 
of  land  animals. 

But,  before  the  close  of  the  sixth  day,  the  record 
is :  "And  God  said,  Let  us  make  man  in  our  image 
after  our  likeness!'  The  appearance  of  man,  then, 
according  to  the  Bible,  was  the  closing  scene  in  the 
great  drama  of  creation. 

Now,  without  entering  into  the  disputed  question  of 
chronology  as  to  the  number  of  years  man  has  been 
upon  the  earth,  or  of  the  unity  of  the  race,  we  know 
of  no  scientific  man  who  does  not  consider  that  man 
was  the  last  term  in  the  series,  whether  he  believes 
in  development  or  direct  creation.  Man  is  not  only 
the  last  term  that  has  appeared,  but  he  is  the  last 
term  possible,  according  to  the  plan  of  structure 
sketched  in  the  first  fish  of  the  Silurian  waters. 
We  have  then  the  six  great  epochs  completed.  If 
there  had  been  in  the  universe  some  intelligent  be- 
ing like  man,  before  whose  eyes  the  whole  scene  of 
creation  could  have  passed,  the  grand  pictures  that 
would  have  attracted  his  attention  would  have  been 
in  the  order  we  have  described. 

First.  The  gathering  of  the  elements  by  the  mighty, 


3 1 8  Natural  Theology. 

all-pervading  force  of  gravitation,  giving  a  world  of 
light. 

Second.  The  condensation  of  the  globe  and  the 
waters  upon  it,  so  that  the  atmosphere  should  take 
its  place  as  the  divider  of  waters. 

Third.  The  forming  of  dry  land  and  the  appearance 
of  plants,  increasing  in  quantity  till  they  culminated 
in  that  abundant  vegetation  that  covered  the  land 
in  the  coal  period,  stretching,  as  it  must  have 
stretched,  from  pole  to  pole,  wherever  land  ap- 
peared. 

Fourth.  The  appearance  in  the  heavens  of  the  sun 
and  moon  and  stars,  to  do  their  appointed  work 
while  the  world  should  stand. 

Fifth.  The  abundance  of  animal  life  filling  the  wa- 
ters. 

Sixth.  The  sudden  increase  of  life  upon  the  land, 
in  animals  huge  in  size  and  higher  in  organization 
than  any  that  had  before  appeared  ;  and  finally,  the 
appearance  of  man,  with  such  powers  that  he  was 
the  lord  and  master  of  all. 

If,  now,  that  being  had  been  called  upon  to  give 
an  account  of  the  whole  scene  in  the  limits  of  a 
single  chapter,  could  he  have  exceeded  in  accuracy 
and  fulness  the  description  given  by  Moses  ?  We 
have  seen  a  part  of  the  changes  produced  through 
the  operations  of  natural  forces.  Moses  carries  us 
one  step  further  back  to  Him  who  holds  the  forces 
in  His  hand. 

We  feel  justified  in  applying  to  this  grand  epic 
of   the    creation,   the    substance  of   the    language 


The  Seventh  Day,  319 

which  Humboldt  applied  to  the  hundred  and  fourth 
Psalm. 

We  are  astonished  to  find,  in  a  description  of  such 
limited  extent,  the  whole  geological  history  of  the 
earth  so  accurately  sketched  by  a  few  bold  touches, 

The  Mosaic  record  goes  further  still,  and  speaks 
of  the  day  of  rest.  We  have  no  evidence  of  new 
creations  since  man  appeared  upon  the  globe.  We 
are  not  told  in  the  Bible  that  the  evening  and  the 
morning  were  the  seventh  day.  God  rested  from 
the  works  of  creation  on  the  seventh  day,  and  we 
have  no  evidence  that  that  day  is  completed  yet. 
All  of  the  moral  relations  of  this  rest  and  the  esta- 
blishment of  the  Sabbath  are  foreign  to  our  present 
purpose,  which  is  simply  to  compare  the  two  records 
so  far  as  they  both  extend.  But  when  the  Bible 
passes  on  to  the  moral  history  of  the  race,  we  have 
no  positive  revelations  of  nature  that  enable  us  to 
continue  the  comparison.  And  this  work  has  been 
done  so  fully  by  Hugh  Miller,  whose  works  are 
known  to  almost  every  reader,  that  nothing  would 
be  gained  by  a  lengthy  discussion.  But  certainly 
nothing  is  more  natural  than  that  six  days  should 
stand  as  representatives  of  the  six  great  epochs  in 
creation,  when  God  appeared  only  as  a  Controller  of 
matter  and  the  Builder  of  the  universe,  and  that  the 
seventh  should  stand  emblematic  of  that  epoch 
when,  creation  having  ceased,  the  great  manifesta- 
tions of  His  character  were  those  of  the  Sustainer 
and  moral  Governor  of  the  universe. 

We  have  now  completed  the  work  which  we  pro- 


320  Natural  Theology. 

posed  to  do  at  the  commencement  of  these  lectures. 
We  might  have  given  our  whole  time  to  a  single  de- 
partment in  nature.  But  we  have  chosen  rather  to 
tread  various  paths,  and  from  all  these  short  excur- 
sions we  have  returned  with  the  same  result.  Every 
organic  being  has  been  found  to  be  provided  for. 
The  elements  are  mingled  by  weight  and  measure. 
There  is  order  and  harmony  everywhere.  Man 
finds  the  world  answering  to  his  intellectual  and 
emotional  nature,  and  in  all  its  constitution  encou- 
raging him  in  virtue  and  frowning  on  his  vice.  What 
the  world  does  not  provide  for  his  moral  nature,  is 
found  in  the  Bible,  which  thus  takes  its  place  as  one 
of  the  natural  provisions  for  his  wants.  The  moral 
law  of  the  Bible,  and  the  constitution  of  nature,  de- 
mand from  him  the  same  course  of  action.  The 
two  revelations  are  one  in  their  teaching,  so  that 
we  close  as  we  commenced,  by  adopting  the  senti- 
ment of  him  who  founded  this  Institute  ;  that 

"  The  most  certain  and  most  important  part  of  Phi- 
losophy (is J  that  which  shows  the  connectiofi  between 
God's  revelations  and  the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil 
implanted  by  Him  in  our  nature — and  that  the7'e  is 
a  conformity  between  Natural  Religion  and  that  of 
our  Saviour." 

THE   END. 


&  %ist  of  t\)t  Publications 


OF 


G.    P.    PUTNAM    &    SON, 

66 1  Broadway,  New    York. 


OLTE  (Amely).  MADAME  de  STAEL  ;  A  His- 
torical Novel :  translated  from  the  German  by  Theo. 
Johnson.     i6mo,  cloth  ext,  $1.50. 

[Putnam's  European  Library] 

"  One  of  the  best  historical  novels  which  has  appeared  for  a  long  time." — IUust. 
Zeitung.  "  Worthy  of  its  great  subject."— Familien-Journal.  "  Every  chapter 
brings  the  reader  in  contact  with  eminent  personages,  and  entertains  him  in  the 
most  agreeable  and  profitable  manner." — Europa. 

LACKWELL.      STUDIES    IN    GENERAL    SCI- 
ENCE.     By  Antoinette    Brown    Blackwell.      i2mo 
(uniform  with   Child's  "  Benedicite  ").      Cloth  extra, 
$2.25. 
BLINDPITS— A  NOVEL.     [Reprinted  by  special  arrange- 
ment with  the  Edinburgh  publishers.]     1  vol.  i2mo,  $1.75. 

***  A  delightful  story,  which  everybody  will  like. 

AVE.  Drawing  without  a  Master  :  The  Cave*  Method 
of  Learning  to  Draw  from  Memory.  By  Madame  E. 
Cave.     From  4th  Paris  edition.     T2mo,  cloth,  $1. 

*#*  "  This  is  the  only  metJwd  of  drawing  which  really  teaches  anything. 
In  publishing  the  remarkable  treatise  in  which  she  unfolds,  with  surpassing  inter- 
est, the  result  of  her  observations  upon  the  teaching  of  drawing,  and  the  ingenious 
methods  she  applies,  Madame  Cave  *  *  *  renders  invaluable  service  to  all  who 
have  marked  out  for  themselves  a  career  of  Art."— Extract  from  a  long  review  in 
the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  written  by  Delacroix. 

"  It  is  interesting  and  valuable."  — D.  Huntington,  Prest.  Nat.  Acad. 

"  Should  be  used  by  every  teacher  of  Drawing  in  America."— City  Item,  Phila. 


Publications  of 


HADBOURNE.  Natural  Theology  ;  or,  Nature  and 
the  Bible  from  the  same  Author.  Lectures  delivered 
before  the  Lowell  Institute,  Boston.  By  P.  A.  Chad- 
bourne,  A.M.,  M.D.,  President  of  University  of  Wisconsin. 
i2mo,  cloth,  $2.00.     Student's  edition,  $1.75. 

"  This  is  a  valuable  contribution  to  current  literature,  and  will  be  found  adapted 
to  the  use  of  the  class-room  in  college,  and  to  the  investigations  of  private  stu- 
dents."— Richmond  Christian  Adv. 

"  The  warm,  fresh  breath  of  pure  and  fervent  religion  pervades  these  eloquent 
pages." — Am.  Baptist. 

"  Prof.  Chadbourne's  book  is  among  the  few  metaphysical  ones  now  published 
which,  once  taken  up,  cannot  be  laid  aside  unread.  It  is  written  in  a  perspicuous, 
animated  style,  combining  depth  of  thought  and  grace  of  diction,  with  a  total  ab- 
sence of  ambitious  display." — Washmgton  National  Republic.  "  In  diction, 
method,  and  spirit,  the  volume  is  attractive  and  distinctive  to  a  rare  degree." — Bos- 
ton Traveller. 

jHILD'S  BENEDICITE  ;  or.  Illustration  of  the  Pow- 
er, Wisdom,  and  Goodness  of  God,  as  manifested  in 
his  Works.  By  G.  Chaplin  Child,  M.D.  From  the 
London  edition  of  John  Murray.  With  an  Introductory 
Note  by  Henry  G.  Weston,  D.D.,  of  New  York.  1  vol. 
i2mo.  Elegantly  printed  on  tinted  paper,  cloth  extra,  bevel- 
led, $2.00  ;  mor.  ext.,  $4.50. 

Chief  Contents. 


Introduction. 
The  Heavens. 
The  Sun  and  Moon. 
The  Planets. 
The  Stars. 


Winter  and  Summer. 
Nights  and  Days. 
Light  and  Darkness. 
Lightning  and  Clouds. 
Showers  and  Dew. 


Wells. 

Seas  and  Floods. 

The  Winds. 

Fire  and  Heat. 

Frost  and  Snow,  etc. 


"The  most  admirable  popular  treatise  of  natural  theology.  It  is  no  extravagance 
to  say  that  we  have  never  read  a  more  charming  book,  or  one  which  we  can  recom- 
mend more  confidently  to  our  readers  with  the  assurance  that  it  will  aid  them,  as 
none  that  we  know  of  can  do,  to 

1  Look  through  Nature  up  to  Nature's  God.' 

Every  clergyman  would  do  well  particularly  to  study  this  book.  For  the  rest,  the 
handsome  volume  is  delightful  in  appearance,  and  is  one  of  the  most  creditable  spe- 
cimens of  American  book-making  that  has  come  from  the  Riverside  Press." — Round 
Table,  N.  Y.,  June  i. 

LARKE.     PORTIA,  and  other  Tales  of  Shakespeare's 
Heroines.      By  Mrs.  Cowden  Clarke,  author  of  the 
Concordance    to    Shakspeare.       With     engravings. 
i2mo,  cloth  extra,  $2.50.     Gilt  edges,  $3. 

***  An  attractive  book,  especially  for  girls. 


G.  P.  Putnam  &  Son. 


OOPER.  Rural  Hours.  By  a  Lady.  (Miss  Susan  Fen- 
imore  Cooper.)  New  Edition,  with  a  new  Introduc- 
tory Chapter,     i  vol.  i2mo,  $2.50. 

"  One  of  the  most  interesting  volumes  of  the  day,  displaying  powers  of  mind  of 
a  high  order." — Mrs.  Hale's  Womaii's  Record. 

"  An  admirable  portraiture  of  American  out-door  life,  just  as  it  is." — Prof.  Hart. 

"A  very  pleasant  book — the  result  of  the  combined  effort  of  good  sense  and  good 
feeling,  an  observant  mind,  and  a  real,  honest,  unaffected  appreciation  of  the 
countless  minor  beauties  that  Nature  exhibits  to  her  assiduous  lovers." — N.  Y. 
A  Ibion. 

RAVEN  (Mme.  Aug.).  ANNE  SEVERIN  :  A  Story 
translated  from  the  French.     i6mo. 


[Putnam's  European  Library  i\ 

***  "  The  Sister's  Story,"  by  the  same  author,  has  been  warmly  and  generally 
eulogized  as  a  book  of  remarkably  pure  and  elevated  character. 

ICKINSON'S  Life,  Letters,  and  Speeches.  The  Life 
and  Writings  of  the  late  Hon.  Daniel  S.  Dickinson, 
of  New  York  ;  including  Speeches  in  the  Senate,  and 
on  various  public  occasions,  Private  Correspondence,  etc. 
Edited  by  his  brother,  Hon.  J.  R.  Dickinson.  2  vols,  large 
8vo.  Published  for  subscribers.  Cloth,  $10.00  ;  half  calf,  $15. 

"  A  valuable  contribution  to  our  political  literature,     *     *     belonging  to  the  most 
striking  events  of  our  times." — N.  Y.  Times. 


INGELSTEDT  (Franz).  THE  AMAZON.    Transla- 
ted  from  the   German  by   J.  M.  Hart.      i6mo,  cloth 

extra,  $1.50. 

"  Full  of  scintillations  of  wit,  *  *  sparkles  throughout  with  vivacity  and  fanci- 
ful humor." — Leipsic  Blatter. 

"  Unquestionably  the  most  charming  novel  that  has  appeared  for  some  time." 
— "  Ueber  Land  und  Meer"  Stuttgart. 

GGLESTON   (Geo.  W.).     THE  SEARCH  AFTER 
TRUTH.    i6mo,  cloth. 


AY.  A  new  System  of  Astronomy.  By  Hon.  Theo. 
S.  Fay.  Richly  illustrated.  For  Families  and  for 
Students.     i2mo,  with  Atlas,  quarto,     (hi  press.) 


Publications  of 


FAY.  A  new  System  of  GEOGRAPHY.  By  Hon.  Theo. 
S.  Fay.  With  finely  executed  Maps.  For  Families  and 
for  Students.  i2mo,  with  Atlas,  quarto.  Cloth  extra, 
$4.25.    School  edition,  $3.75.     [See  Separate  Circular.] 

***  These  volumes  have  been  prepared  with  the  greatest  care,  and  have  cost 
several  years  of  labor  under  the  suggestions  and  supervisions  of  Humboldt,  Ritter, 
and  the  most  eminent  Geographers  and  Astronomers  of  Europe.  They  are  on  a 
new  plan,  and  the  maps  and  illustrations  are  admirably  executed,  at  large  expense. 


ODWIN.  The  Cyclopaedia  of  BIOGRAPHY  :  A  Rec- 
ord of  the  Lives  of  Eminent  Persons.  By  Parke 
Godwin.  New  edition,  with  a  Supplement  brought 
down  to  the  present  time.  By  George  Sheppard.  In  one 
volume,  crown  8vo,  cloth,  $3.50  ;  half-calf,  $6. 

"  We  can  speak  from  long  experience  in  the  use  of  this  book,  as  a  well-thumbed 
copy  of  the  first  edition  has  lain  for  years  on  our  library  table,  for  almost  daily 
reference.  A  concise,  compact  biographical  dictionary  is  one  of  the  most  necessary 
and  convenient  of  manuals,  and  we  seldom  failed  to  find  what  we  looked  for  in  this 
excellent  compendium."—  Home  Journal. 

ENERAL  GREENE'S  Life.  The  Life  of  Nathaniel 
Greene,  Major- General  in  the  Army  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. By  George  Washington  Greene,  author  of  His- 
torical View  of  the  American  Revolution.  3  vols.  8vo. 
University  press.  The  first  volume  is  now  ready.  Price 
to  subscribers,  $4  per  volume. 

The  history  ofour.lifeas  a  nation  loses  both  its  philosophical  and  its  practical 
importance  if  separated  from  the  history  of  the  Revolution.  A  careful  study  of 
the  War  of  Independence  would  have  saved  us  thousands  of  lives  and  millions 
of  money  in  the  War  of  the  Rebellion.  Next  to  the  life  of  Washington,  it  is  in  the 
life  of  Greene  that  this  history  is  to  be  sought :  nor  can  it  be  fully  understood  with- 
out reading  both.  It  is  in  the  hope  of  contributing  to  the  materials  for  this  study, 
and  in  the  conviction  that  to  preserve  the  memory  of  great  and  good  men  is 
one  of  the  highest  offices  of  patriotism,  that  these  volumes  are  offered  to  the  student 
of  American  history. 

"  The  book  is  most  valuable  and  most  interesting,  and  ought  to  be  in  every  library 
in  the  Union." — Round  Table. 

"  Let  every  father  give  this  book  to  his  son,  that  the  young  generation,  instead 
of  receiving  distorted  impressions  from  the  perusal  of  such  trash  as  that  of  the 
Headley,  Spencer,  and  Abbott  school,  may  see  in  their  true  light  the  glory  and 
shortcomings,  the  success  and  the  failures  of  that  glorious  period  of  American  his- 
tory, and  that  they  may  learn  to  emulate  the  example  set  by  Greene  and  his 
compeers." — N.  Y.  Evening  Post. 


